BRAZIL

Boat traffic on the Amazon River near Gurup, Par state, Brazil. officially Federative Republic of Brazil, Portuguese Repblica Federativa do Brasil, country of South America. It is the fifth largest country in the world, exceeded in size only by Russia, Canada, China, and the United States. It covers an area of 3,300,171 square miles (8,547,404 square kilometres), or about half of South America. Brazil is so vast that, although it faces the Atlantic Ocean along 4,600 miles (7,400 kilometres) of coastline, it also borders on every nation of the South American continent except Chile and Ecuadorspecifically, Uruguay to the south; Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia to the southwest; Peru to the west; Colombia to the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana to the north. Stretching for approximately 2,700 miles from north to south and from east to west, it contains no desert, high mountain, or Arctic environments that limit the extent of human occupancy. Most of the inhabitants of Brazil, the world's fifth most populous nation, are concentrated along the eastern seaboard. Its national capital, Braslia, however, is located inland, on the outer edge of intensive settlement. Planned from scratch, Braslia replaced Rio de Janeiro as the capital in 1960. Brazil is unique among the nations of the Americas: this former colony of Portugal did not become fragmented into separate countries, as did the British and Spanish possessions, but retained its identity through the intervening centuries and a variety of forms of government. The Portuguese language is, therefore, universal except among a few thousand native Indians in the most remote reaches of the Amazon River system. The physical and human features of this broad land are rich and various. Because the greater part of the Amazon Basin lies within Brazilian territory, scientists from throughout the world are attracted to the region to study the Earth's largest river system and most extensive regions of virgin rainforest. Brazil has enormous expanses of untouched tropical forest and sparsely settled savannas with a scattering of isolated villages. It is a land rich in natural resources, and its burgeoning cities, huge hydroelectric and industrial complexes, mines, and fertile farmlands have placed it among the world's most productive countries. In contrast, however, Brazil is also a country that has had to struggle with a rapidly growing population, an unstable economy, periods of soaring inflation, and a highly volatile political life. officially Federative Republic of Brazil, Portuguese Repblica Federativa do Brasil country of South America, covering nearly half the continent's total land area. Brazil borders every country in South America with the exception of Ecuador and Chile, specifically: Uruguay on the south; Argentina, Paraguay, and Bolivia on the southwest; Peru on the west; Colombia on the northwest; and Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana on the north. Brazil's entire easterly boundary is more than 4,600 miles (7,400 km) of South America's Atlantic coastline. The capital is Braslia. Area 3,286,500 square miles (8,511,996 square km). Pop. (1993 est.) 156,493,000. Annual pre-Lenten Carnival parade, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. The cultures of the Indians, the Africans, and the Portuguese have together formed the modern Brazilian way of life. By far the most dominant of these cultures is that of the Portuguese, from whom Brazilians acquired their language, their religion, and most of their traditional customs. The influence of the aborigines and Africans is still apparent, however. Tup-Guaran, the language that was spoken by most of the Brazilian Indians, was adapted by 16th-century missionaries for teaching the catechism and for a time was spoken widely throughout the interior of northern Brazil by Indians, mestizos, Portuguese, and blacks. Many words in modern Brazilian Portuguese have their origin in the Indian language. The Indian contribution to Brazilian culture is, however, perhaps most apparent in the Amazon Basin. African influence on the Brazilian way of life is strongest in the plantation region north along the coast from Rio de Janeiro. Particularly in Bahia, there are traditional dishes of African origin, such as vatapmade of rice flour, coconut oil, fish and shrimps, red peppers, and many condiments. Evident in northern coastal cities are religious cults of African origin. African influence is also reflected in Brazilian popular music, especially in the rhythmic sambas. Government involvement in virtually every aspect of Brazilian life has failed to lessen the individualism and initiative of the people. Despite numerous social and economic problems, Brazilians continue to be exuberant in their celebrations, their art forms, and in support of their favourite football (soccer) teams. Although among the oldest and most stable of the European-derived cultures in the Americas, Brazil is a country that adapts readily to rapid changes and new opportunities. Daily life The rapid, large-scale urbanization of Brazil during the post-World War II period has altered the life-style of the majority of the country's inhabitants. In most ways, large Brazilian cities differ little from others in the Western world, but their greater degree of crowding and large volume of pedestrian traffic may in some cases compare more closely with the cities of China than of North America. Brazilians' family ties, both immediate and extended, generally remain stronger than in North America; family members customarily live in relatively close proximity to one another, holding frequent reunions or going to the family farm or ranch on weekends and holidays. However, this traditional system of kinship ties depends upon a certain degree of wealth and stability for its preservation, and it is no longer as strong as it once was, given the increased mobility and urbanization of the Brazilian people. In the favelas, various members of an extended family may occupy the same dwelling, but this may be of necessity in some cases, rather than tradition. Relief The Pantanal in northwestern Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil. It is one of the world's largest The country can be readily described in terms of its highlands and their adjoining lowlands, which are separated from each other by an almost continuous series of physical barriers, the most impressive being the Great Escarpment. The Great Escarpment The massive fault block called the Great Escarpment extends for 1,600 miles along the eastern coast. From Rio de Janeiro southward it is known as the Serra do Mar; this segment of the Great Escarpment, presenting an almost sheer face to the sea, averages about 3,000 feet (1,000 metres) in elevation. It is flanked on the east by the tips of lower fault blocks, including the outcrops of Sugar Loaf (Po de Acar) and Gvea in Rio de Janeiro, and a string of islands, including the large ones of Santa Catarina, So Sebastio, and Grande. Northward from Rio de Janeiro the escarpment breaks into a series of highly faulted and fractured blocks characterized by deep, steep-sided valleys ringed by high, rounded peaks and nearly vertical slabs of bare rock. It is known variously as the Orgos Mountains northwest of Rio de Janeiro, as the Aimors Mountains along the Minas GeraisEsprito Santo border, and as the Geral Mountains in Bahia. The barrier finally ends in a low scarp. Elsewhere the escarpment ends in a rim marked by fall lines, where the rivers, forming rapids and waterfalls, plunge onto the coastal lowlands. Additional reading The land and people Broad overviews of geography, history, and culture are available in Richard F. Nyrop, Brazil: A Country Study, 4th ed. (1983); Rollie E. Poppino, Brazil: The Land and People, 2nd ed. (1973); T. Lynn Smith, Brazil: People and Institutions, 4th ed. (1972); and Charles Wagley, An Introduction to Brazil, rev. ed. (1971). See also Jos Honrio Rodrigues, The Brazilians: Their Character and Aspirations (1967; originally published in Portuguese, 1963). Further bibliographic information may be found in Solena V. Bryant (comp.), Brazil (1985).Basic geographic information can be found in Preston E. James, C.W. Minkel, and Eileen W. James, Portuguese South America, in Latin America, 5th ed. (1986), pp. 463533; John P. Dickenson, Brazil (1982), an economic geography of Brazilian industry; Fundao Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatstica Departamento de Geografia, Geografia do Brasil, 5 vol. (1977); and Marvin Harris, Town and Country in Brazil (1956, reprinted 1971), a good account of population settlement. Background on Brazilian agriculture is provided in G. Edward Schuh, The Agricultural Development of Brazil (1970). See also Allen W. Johnson, Sharecroppers of the Serto: Economics and Dependence on a Brazilian Plantation (1971).The problems of northeastern Brazil are explored in Manuel Correia de Andrade, The Land and People of Northeast Brazil (1980; originally published in Portuguese, 1963), a comprehensive geography; Kempton E. Webb, The Changing Face of Northeast Brazil (1974); and Josu de Castro, Death in the Northeast (1966), on the impact of drought on the inhabitants of the northeastern interior. The ecology and development of the Amazon region are discussed in Alex Shoumatoff, The Rivers Amazon, rev. ed. (1986); John Hemming (ed.), Change in the Amazon Basin, 2 vol. (1985); and Roger D. Stone, Dreams of Amazonia (1985, reissued 1986).Ethnographic studies include, on Brazil's native peoples, Julian H. Steward (ed.), Handbook of South American Indians, 7 vol. (194659, reprinted 1963), an indispensable reference work; John Hemming, Red Gold: The Conquest of the Brazilian Indians (1978), a masterful study of the European-Indian encounter and its tragic effects on the Indians, and a sequel, Amazon Frontier: The Defeat of the Brazilian Indians (1987); and Betty J. Meggers, Amazonia: Man and Culture in a Counterfeit Paradise (1971), a classic study of the lifestyle of native peoples in the Amazon. On African peoples and slavery, see Manuel Raimundo Querino, The African Contribution to Brazilian Civilization, trans. from Portuguese (1978); Joaquim Nabuco, Abolitionism: The Brazilian Antislavery Struggle (1977; originally published in Portuguese, 1883), the most important Brazilian document favouring manumission; Carl N. Degler, Neither Black nor White: Slavery and Race Relations in Brazil and the United States (1971, reprinted 1986), a masterpiece of comparative history; and Florestan Fernandes, The Negro in Brazilian Society (1969; originally published in Portuguese, 1964), a historical study. On the peasants, see Shepard Forman, The Brazilian Peasantry (1975), a series of explorations of the lifestyles of rural peoples, and The Raft Fishermen: Tradition & Change in the Brazilian Peasant Economy (1970), a study of continuity and innovation in this group. See also Pierre-Michel Fontaine (ed.), Race, Class, and Power in Brazil (1985), thoughtful and far-ranging essays, many of them strongly revisionist. The economy, government, and social conditions Brazil's economic history is chronicled in Werner Baer, The Brazilian Economy: Growth & Development, 2nd ed. (1983), an overview; Joe Foweraker, The Struggle for Land: A Political Economy of the Pioneer Frontier in Brazil from 1930 to the Present Day (1981); Marta Cehelsky, Land Reform in Brazil: The Management of Social Change (1979), on a basic and continuing problem in Brazil; George-Andr Fiechter, Brazil Since 1964Modernisation Under a Military Regime: A Study of the Interactions of Politics and Economics in a Contemporary Military Rgime (1975; originally published in French, 1972); and Celso Furtado, The Economic Growth of Brazil: A Survey from Colonial to Modern Times (1963, reprinted 1984; originally published in Portuguese, 1959). Problems of development and industrialization are discussed in William G. Tyler, The Brazilian Industrial Economy (1981); and Janet D. Henshall and R.P. Momsen, A Geography of Brazilian Development (1974, reprinted 1976), a regional statistical survey of Brazil's economic evolution. Studies of urbanization include June E. Hahner, Poverty and Politics: The Urban Poor in Brazil, 18701920 (1986), a unique account of the urban masses during a period of accelerating immigration and urbanization; T. Lynn Smith, Brazilian Society (1974), a general discussion of the population as it shifts from rural to urban society; and Charles Wagley, Amazon Town: A Study of Man in the Tropics (1953, reissued 1976), a detailed study of life in a typical small Amazonian town.The history of education is described in Fay Haussman and Jerry Haar, Education in Brazil (1978). An introduction to science and medicine in Brazil is found in Nancy Stepan, Beginnings of Brazilian Science: Oswaldo Cruz, Medical Research and Policy, 18901920 (1976, reissued 1981). Cultural life Gilberto Freyre, New World in the Tropics: The Culture of Modern Brazil (1959, reprinted 1980), explains how the Brazilians view their society. Fernando de Azevedo, Brazilian Culture (1950, reissued 1971; originally published in Portuguese, 1943), contains a rich and detailed study of nearly every aspect of Brazilian culture. The literature of Brazil is explored in Afrnio Coutinho, An Introduction to Literature in Brazil (1969; originally published in Portuguese, 1959), an appraisal of the country's literature from the late colonial period to the mid-20th century; and Samuel Putnam, Marvelous Journey: A Survey of Four Centuries of Brazilian Writing (1948, reissued 1971), a standard text. David T. Haberly, Three Sad Races: Racial Identity and National Consciousness in Brazilian Literature (1983), provides the most sophisticated analysis of the link between literature and society. Art forms are the subject of Randal Johnson, Cinema Novo x 5: Masters of Contemporary Brazilian Film (1984), a study of five major filmmakers; Walmir Ayala, O Brasil por Seus Artistas: Brazil Through Its Artists (1980 or 1981), with emphasis on people and landscapes in art, particularly in the 196080 period; Selden Rodman, Genius in the Backlands: Popular Artists of Brazil (1977), a brief but intriguing introduction to folk painters and their significance; and Leopoldo Castedo, The Baroque Prevalence in Brazilian Art (1964), a profusely illustrated essay.Luso-Afro-Indian religious beliefs are introduced in Roger Bastide, The African Religions of Brazil: Towards a Sociology of the Interpenetration of Civilizations (1978; originally published in French, 1960), the classic text; and Seth Leacock and Ruth Leacock, Spirits of the Deep: A Study of an Afro-Brazilian Cult (1972, reissued 1975). The political role of the Roman Catholic church is detailed in Scott Mainwaring, The Catholic Church and Politics in Brazil, 19161985 (1986); and Thomas C. Bruneau, The Political Transformation of the Brazilian Catholic Church (1974), and a companion volume, The Church in Brazil: The Politics of Religion (1982). Richard P. Momsen, Jr. E. Bradford Burns Administration and social conditions Government Congress Building, Braslia, Brazil, by Oscar Niemeyer, 1960. Brazil is a federal republic divided into 26 states and one federal district. The constitution promulgated on Oct. 17, 1969, under Brazil's military leadership, continued in force after civilian government was restored in 1985, although some key amendments were made and a constituent assembly was formed. A new constitution was promulgated on Oct. 5, 1988, the eighth constitution since the country's independence in 1822. The product of a 559-member Constituent Assembly, it abolished many of the traces of the former military regime. As the fundamental law, the constitution defines the rights of the citizen and the functions of the executive, legislative, and judiciary powers. The president's power to legislate was abolished in the 1988 constitution, as were government censorship of art and the use of torture and extradition for political crimes. The voting age was lowered from age 18 to age 16, and a provision was made for a presidential election in November 1989. According to the constitution, legislative power is exercised by the National Congress, composed of the Chamber of Deputies and the Federal Senate. Congress meets every year, in two sessions of four and a half months each. The constitution gives Congress the power to rule in all matters that come under the jurisdiction of the union, particularly those related to the political or administrative organization of the union and to fiscal policies. Congress also has the power to rule on international treaties concluded by the executive, to authorize the president to declare war, and to approve or disapprove federal intervention in the states. Bills approved by Congress can be totally or partially vetoed by the executive. Congress has 30 days to overrule a veto by a majority vote. The Chamber of Deputies is composed of representatives of the states elected every four years by direct universal suffrage and secret ballot. The number of deputies is in proportion to the population of each state, but no state can be represented in the chamber by more than 70 or by fewer than eight deputies. The Federal Senate is formed by representatives of the states (three from each state and the Federal District), who serve for a term of eight years. The Senate is renewed every four years, the first time by a third of its members and the second time by the other two-thirds. Senators are directly elected by the electorate of each state in a straight majority poll. Executive power is exercised by the president, who is assisted by ministers of state. From 1945 to 1964 the president was elected for a five-year term by direct universal suffrage and secret ballot. After the military took power in 1964 the president and the vice president were elected indirectly, first by the National Congress and later by an electoral college formed of members of Congress and representatives of state assemblies. A 1977 reform extended the mandate of the president to six years. In 1985, however, under a civilian government, an amendment was passed restoring direct presidential elections, establishing a four-year term of office for the president, and instituting other political reforms. The president's term was extended to five years in 1988. The executive has wide powers, particularly in economic and foreign policy, finances, and internal security. The executive can decide, for example, that any of its bills submitted to the legislative branch shall be voted upon by Congress within 30 days. If Congress does not comply within this period, the bill is considered approved. The president is assisted by his cabinet, made up of the various ministers of state and several other heads of ministerial-level departments, all of whom are appointed by the executive. The judiciary power is made up of several institutions. The Federal Supreme Court is composed of 11 members named by the president with approval of the Federal Senate. It alone decides on litigations between foreign states and the different entities of the union, as well as on differences between the political or administrative divisions of the union. The court also deals with either the demands or writs of mandamus against acts of the highest authorities of the republic (the president, Congress, and judiciary) and decides on demands of habeas corpus already judged at a lower level. It also pronounces on the constitutionality of laws and decrees, and it judges common-law crimes by the president, ministers of state, members of Congress, or magistrates of higher courts. The Federal Superior Court is composed of 33 judges appointed by the president with the approval of the Senate. It hears cases involving governors of the states and the federal district and members of the judiciary. It also decides on writs of mandamus and habeas corpus against ministers of state and members of its own court, decisions that were formerly the responsibility of the Court of Appeals. Under the 1988 constitution the Court of Appeals serves as the court of last resort for common pleas. Each state or territory, as well as the federal district, constitutes a judiciary section. The federal judges there instruct and judge in the first instance certain political crimes, crimes committed against the labour organization or crimes committed on the occasion of strikes, and cases related to public organizations. Electoral courts and judges are responsible for the registration of political parties and the control of their finances. They also fix the date of elections and prosecute and make judgments on any electoral crimes committed. Labour courts and their judges mediate in individual or collective conflicts between management and workers. Military courts and their judges mediate in cases involving the military. The states and territories are subdivided into municipalities. The municipalities are autonomous politico-administrative units created by the states, on condition that they have a minimum of population and their own fiscal resources. The municipalities are governed by mayors (prefeitos) and municipal councillors, both of whom are directly elected. The federal district, Braslia, is the capital of the union. Its prefeito is named by the president with the approval of the Senate. The states are ruled by autonomous laws and constitutions within the framework of the principles defined by the federal constitution. The union can intervene in the internal affairs of the states, in cases foreseen by the federal constitution. Each state has a governor and a legislative assembly. Governors and assemblymen are elected by direct vote with secret ballots. The political party system in Brazil began to emerge in the 1940s under President Getlio Dorneles Vargas, who established the Social Democratic Party and the Brazilian Labour Party to buffer his weakening administration. A number of other parties were organized and entered elections through the 1950s and early 1960s, but few of them developed any political power of note. Under the aegis of the military government that was established in 1964 all political parties that had been previously active were abolished in 1965. They were replaced by one government party, the National Renewal Alliance, and an opposition party, the Brazilian Democratic Movement. In 1979 the two official parties were abolished in favour of a new system that would allow participation of more parties, but still under quite restrictive regulations. After civilian government was restored in 1985 all political parties were once again legalized. Luciano Martins The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica Education The educational system in Brazil is overseen by the Ministry of Education and its policy-making body, the Federal Council of Education. Education is free and compulsory at the primary level (grades one through eight, starting at age seven) and is also free at the middle, or secondary, level (three grades and an optional fourth). A broad educational gap exists in Brazil between the higher income groups and the masses in the lower income groups. About 20 percent of the people are illiterate, and about two-thirds have only four years of education or more. An attempt to correct some of the inequities in the system was made through reforms instituted in 1971, but results have been limited. Brazil's pre-primary schools are about equally divided between state, municipal, and private institutions. Of the primary schools nearly one-half are located in the Northeast, although they enroll only about one-third of the nation's primary students; whereas the Southeast, with about 40 percent of the primary students, has one-fourth of the schools. The primary schools of the Northeast, and in the North and Central-West as well, are smaller, more dispersed, and in the hands of less qualified teachers than those in the South and Southeast. Furthermore, the schools in the former areas tend to be financed out of meagre municipal budgets, whereas in the latter they are predominantly state-supported. For example, in Bahia there are six times as many primary schools supported by municipalities than are funded by the state; in So Paulo the balance is reversed. Private schools generally account for a small percentage of primary school enrollments. The federal government also operates a small number of primary schools, mostly in the Amap and Roraima territories and in the city of Rio de Janeiro, the latter a legacy from the days when it was the federal capital. Only about 10 percent of the primary students in Brazil continue on to the secondary level, and, of these, most do not complete the three- to four-year program because many of the curricula involve short-term vocational training. Low overall secondary school enrollment is caused not only by the necessity of entering the work force at an early age (the census includes children as young as 10) but also by the fact that these schools are generally located in the larger towns. Attendance therefore can involve the considerable financial burden of living outside the home community. This is particularly true in the Northeast, where there are few secondary schools. About one-half of Brazil's secondary students are in the Southeast. Compared with developed countries, university enrollments are small in Brazil, whether in relation to the overall population or to that of the cities in which they are located; higher education remains largely the prerogative of the wealthy and of the more ambitious members of the middle class. Every political subdivision, be it state, territory, or the Federal District, with the exception of Fernando de Noronha, has at least one university, although in many cases these are limited to those established by the federal government. The largest of the national institutions is the Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, which has a modern campus located on an island in Rio's Guanabara Bay, near the international airport. The universities of Minas Gerais and Rio Grande do Sul are the next largest federal institutions, followed by those of several cities in the Northeast. The largest and most important state university, with the country's largest graduate student population, is the University of So Paulo. It has a main campus in the city of So Paulo and branch campuses around the state. Students may also attend a number of private institutions, many of them run by the Roman Catholic Church.