CINEMATOGRAPHY

the art and technology of motion-picture photography. It involves such techniques as the general composition of a scene; the lighting of the set or location; the choice of cameras, lenses, filters, and film stock; the camera angle and movements; and the integration of any special effects. All these concerns may involve a sizable crew on a feature film, headed by a person variously known as the cinematographer, first cameraman, lighting cameraman, or director of photography, whose responsibility is to achieve the photographic images and effects desired by the director. The earliest motion pictures were filmed as if they were stage plays, using just one or a few cameras in static frontal photography. By the second and third decades of the 20th century, however, in the hands of such cameramen as Billy Bitzer (working with director D.W. Griffith) the camera was doing close-ups, shooting from moving vehicles, employing backlighting and other lighting effects, and generally being used in ways that separated the motion picture from theatrical tradition. With the coming of sound, the inventive motion was interrupted when the noisy cameras were perforce made stationary in sound-proof enclosures not easily moved, but the development of silent cameras again made cinematography flexible. The development of the camera crane (first used in 1929) also expanded the camera's vision, as did the use of wider-angle lenses to achieve a greater depth of field (as Gregg Toland did in the impressive scenes of Citizen Kane ).The two most important events in cinematography after the coming of sound were undoubtedly colour and wide-screen processes. Also important are advances in special effects, as developed in Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), with cameraman Geoffrey Unsworth, and in George Lucas' Star Wars (1977), with cinematographers Gilbert Taylor and (for special effects) John Dykstra. The differences between photography and cinematography are many. A single photograph may be a complete work in itself, but a cinematographer deals with relations between shots and between groups of shots. A main character, for instance, may initially come on screen unrecognizable in shadows and near-darkness (as Orson Welles did in The Third Man ); as a single shot, it might be poor photography, but cinematographically it leads into other shots that reveal the man and give the movie style and integration. Cinematography is also far more collaborative than photography. The cinematographer must plan his work with the producer, the director, the designer, the sound technicians, and each of the actors. The camera crew itself may be complex, especially in a feature film; the chief cinematographer supervises a second cameraman (or camera operator), who handles the camera; an assistant operator (the focus-puller), whose main function is to adjust the focusing; an assistant known as the clapper-loader, or clapper boy, who holds up the slate at the beginning of the shot, loads the magazines with film, and keeps a record of the footage and other details; and the grips, who carry or push around equipment and lay tracks for the camera dolly. The cinematographer may also be in charge of the gaffer, or chief electrician (a lighting technician), who is assisted by one or more best boys. A big-budget film may have additionally a special-effects crew and sometimes a whole second unit of cinematographer and assistants.