CONSERVATION

planned management of a natural resource or the total environment of a particular ecosystem to prevent exploitation, pollution, destruction, or neglect and to ensure the future use of the resource. Although the idea of conservation is probably as old as the human species, the use of the word in its present context is relatively recent. Over the years conservation has acquired many connotations: to some it has meant the protection of wild nature, to others the sustained production of useful materials from the resources of the Earth. The most widely accepted definition, presented in 1980 in World Conservation Strategy by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, is that of the management of human use of the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit while maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspirations of future generations. The document defines the objectives of the conservation of living resources as: maintenance of essential ecological processes and life-support systems, preservation of genetic diversity, and guarantee of the sustainable use of species and ecosystems. More generally, conservation involves practices that perpetuate the resources of the Earth on which human beings depend and that maintain the diversity of living organisms that share the planet. This includes such activities as the protection and restoration of endangered species, the careful use or recycling of scarce mineral resources, the rational use of energy resources, and the sustainable use of soils and living resources. Conservation is necessarily based on a knowledge of ecology, the science concerned with the relationship between life and the environment, but ecology itself is based on a wide variety of disciplines, and conservation involves human feelings, beliefs, and attitudes as well as science and technology. planned management of a natural resource or the total environment of a particular ecosystem to prevent exploitation, pollution, destruction, or neglect and to ensure the future use of the resource. The primary necessities for maintaining lifefood, water, air, and a source of heathave been available to humans for thousands of years. Since the 19th century, however, increased population pressures and the demand of industrialized societies for recreational space and luxuries beyond basic needs have created a strain on the Earth's natural resources. Wise use and careful management can assure that game and fish supplies are not depleted and that forests, grasslands, and other ecosystems are not unduly disturbed or destroyed. Additional reading General works World Resources 1986 (1986), an assessment of the resource base that supports the global economy, prepared by the World Resources Institute and the International Institute for Environment and Development and including data for 146 countries; Robert Repetto (ed.), The Global Possible: Resources, Development, and the New Century (1985), a collection of papers on current problems and prospects for the 21st century; John R. Hollum, Topics and Terms in Environmental Problems (1977), a basic reference source for understanding the terminology and general subjects related to resource conservation and environmental concerns; Raymond F. Dasmann, Environmental Conservation, 5th ed. (1984), a general textbook on the conservation of natural resources, stressing their interrelationships and use; Frank Fraser Darling, Wilderness and Plenty (1970), a series of lectures, presented by the British Broadcasting Company in 1969, that had a great effect on environmental thinking in Europe; Fairfield Osborn, Our Plundered Planet (1948), a classic in conservation, one of the first world views of the impact of human populations and land use on the natural resources of the Earth; William L. Thomas (ed.), Man's Role in Changing the Face of the Earth (1956, reprinted 1971), a comprehensive presentation of mankind's past, present, and probable future roles on the Earth, a classic in conservation; Martin W. Holdgate, Mohammed Kassas, and Gilbert F. White (eds.), The World Environment 19721982: A Report by the United Nations Environment Programme (1982); Ocean Yearbook (annual), a collection of papers dealing with resource management of the world's oceans, fisheries, and minerals, as well as the law of the sea; Joseph M. Moran, Michael D. Morgan, and James H. Wiersma, Introduction to Environmental Science, 2nd ed. (1986), a source of information on ecology and environmental concerns; and Edward O. Wilson, Biophilia (1984), a study of interrelationships in life and lifelike processes. History of conservation Roderick Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 3rd ed. (1982), a history of changes in American attitudes toward wilderness, beginning with the Old World roots and leading to the existing system of protected wilderness areas; Alfred W. Crosby, Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 9001900 (1986), a historical account of the impact of European trade and colonialism upon traditional peoples and the natural environment. Clarence J. Glacken, Traces on the Rhodian Shore: Nature and Culture in Western Thought from Ancient Times to the End of the Eighteenth Century (1967, reprinted 1976), an account of the philosophies and ideas of nature; George P. Marsh, Man and Nature: or, Physical Geography as Modified by Human Action (1864, reissued 1965), a classic of conservation and the first general view of how people change the Earth and affect its living resources; Roderick Nash (ed.), The American Environment: Readings in the History of Conservation, 2nd ed. (1976), a review of the evolution of conservation in the United States, with readings from the works of those who contributed to its development; Henry D. Thoreau, Walden: or, Life in the Woods (1854, with many later editions available), a classic philosophical exploration of humanity's relationship with nature and the values to be found in living apart from civilization and its artifacts, by one of the first advocates of wilderness preservation; Michael P. Cohen, The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness (1984), an analysis of preservationist thought on human beings in the environment; and Stewart L. Udall, The Quiet Crisis (1963, reissued 1971), a review of the history of conservation and the growing crisis in conservation, with emphasis on public lands and living resources in the United States. Ecology Charles Elton, Animal Ecology (1927, reissued 1966), a classic work in ecology and the forerunner to the application of animal ecology in the management of wildlife; Norman Myers, The Sinking Ark: A New Look at the Problem of Disappearing Species (1979, reprinted 1983), an argument for the preservation of a balance of animal species; Eugene P. Odum, Fundamentals of Ecology, 3rd ed. (1971), a standard textbook on general ecology, which emphasizes the nature and functions of ecosystems and includes a discussion of the relationships between ecology and environmental problems; J.E. Lovelock, Gaia, a New Look at Life on Earth (1979), an investigation of the hypothesis that the self-regulating biosphere forms a complex system with the capacity to keep the Earth a fit place for life; Norman Myers, Gaia, an Atlas of Planet Management (1984), and The Primary Source: Tropical Forests and Our Future (1984), studies by an environmentalist; Donald Worster, Nature's Economy: A History of Ecological Ideas, new ed. (1985), an exploration of changing ideas about ecology from the 18th century to the present and their effect on environmental management; Michael E. Soul (ed.), Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity (1986), a collection of papers concerning the application of ecological knowledge and population genetics to problems of conserving threatened species and maintaining the diversity of life on Earth; and Francis R. Thibodeau and Hermann H. Field (eds.), Sustaining Tomorrow: A Strategy for World Conservation and Development (1984), a collection of essays on topics of preservation and conservation of ecological balance. Population, resources, and technological development Paul R. Ehrlich, The Population Bomb, rev. ed. (1971, reprinted 1978), a popular book that touched off the population debates of the late 1960s and early 1970s; Paul R. Ehrlich, Anne H. Ehrlich, and John P. Holdren, Ecoscience: Population, Resources, Environment (1977), a study providing coverage of the major environmental and resource concerns and the scientific basis for their evaluation; Gerald O. Barney (ed.), The Global 2000 Report to the President: Entering the Twenty-First Century, 3 vol. (198081), an analysis of natural resource and environmental problems, with a forecast of conditions in the year 2000 considering existing trends and likely changes, prepared by the Council on Environmental Quality; Amory B. Lovins, Soft Energy Paths: Toward a Durable Peace (1977), an examination of the future prospects for fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewable energy resources; Georg Borgstrom, The Hungry Planet: The Modern World at the Edge of Famine, 2nd rev. ed. (1972), a review of human food needs and the prospects for meeting them, with particular attention to the use of ocean resources; M. Taghi Farvar and John P. Milton (eds.), The Careless Technology: Ecology and International Development: The Record (1972), a collection of case histories and related discussions concerning the unexpected side effects of economic and technological development; and William Vogt, Road to Survival (1948), a classic work on the relationship between populations and resources, written from an emotional viewpoint in an attempt to draw attention to the coming population crisis and emphasizing the growing threat of world hunger, as well as the impact of humans on soils and renewable resources. Management of living resources Wendell Berry, The Unsettling of America: Culture & Agriculture (1977, reprinted 1986), an examination of the past, present, and future of agricultural land use; Norman Myers, A Wealth of Wild Species: Storehouse for Human Welfare (1983), an exposition of concerns for the necessity of maintaining genetic and biologic diversity; Raymond F. Dasmann, Wildlife Biology, 2nd ed. (1981), an introductory college textbook reviewing the principles of wildlife biology and their application to the conservation and management of wild animals; Stephen Haden-Guest, John K. Wright, and Eileen M. Teclaff (eds.), A World Geography of Forest Resources (1956), a survey of the forest resources of the world, the extent to which they are being used, and the problems associated with their management; G.V. Jacks and R.O. Whyte, Vanishing Lands: A World Survey of Soil Erosion (1939; U.K. title, The Rape of the Earth; reprinted 1972), a classic work that reviews the nature of world soils and describes their destruction by erosion as a result of misuse; Aldo Leopold, Game Management (1933, reprinted 1986), the first textbook of wildlife management, a conservation classic, and his Sand County Almanac and Sketches Here and There (1949, reprinted 1981), a study of the ethics and aesthetics of conservation, with emphasis on land, wildlife, and wilderness; Laurence A. Stoddart, Arthur D. Smith, and Thadis W. Box, Range Management, 3rd ed. (1975), a textbook on the principles and practices affecting the use of range and pasturelands by grazing animals. Raymond F. Dasmann