EASTERN ORTHODOXY


Meaning of EASTERN ORTHODOXY in English

official name Orthodox Catholic Church one of the three major doctrinal and jurisdictional groups of Christianity, characterized by its continuity with the apostolic church, its liturgy, and its territorial churches. Eastern Orthodoxy follows the faith and practices that were defined by the first seven ecumenical councils. Its adherents live mainly in the Balkans, the Middle East, and Russia. Eastern Orthodoxy is embodied in a family of autonomous churches that recognize the titular headship of the patriarch of Constantinople (the ecumenical patriarch) and are in communion with each other. Eastern Orthodoxy maintains the same seamless institutional continuity with the earliest Christian churches that Roman Catholicism does and recognizes the same sacraments. Cultural and political factors, not theological ones, caused the separation of the two communions. Culturally, the split between Western Christianity (Roman Catholicism and Protestantism) and Eastern Orthodoxy perpetuates the Roman Empire's division into a Western half, in which Latin was the dominant language, and an Eastern half, in which Greek was dominant among literate people. From the 4th century onward these two halves drifted apart politically. The Roman Empire in the West succumbed to barbarian invasions in the 5th century. The pope, who had long enjoyed a primacy of honour in the entire church, then emerged as the heir to much of the vanished empire's authority. In the East the Roman Empire, although weakened, survived for a thousand years more as what modern historians call the Byzantine Empire. There the patriarch of the capital, Constantinople, emerged as the head of the church, but, as a subject of an all-powerful emperor, he never assumed the independent authority of a pope. A tendency for Orthodox churches to accept a subordinate role in the nation-state is a Byzantine legacy. The earliest Christian literature was in Greek, and Christianity, even at Rome, was long predominantly Greek. The Greek tradition ceased to predominate in the 5th century, when the majority of Christians in Egypt and Syria, who until then had accepted Greek intellectual leadership, broke with the rest of the church over the decrees of the ecumenical councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451). The Arab conquest of those provinces further weakened Eastern Christianity and made the 5th-century schisms permanent. In the meantime, Latin Christianity was spreading beyond the bounds of the old Roman Empire to win the loyalties of the peoples of the rest of western Europe. Only in the 10th century would the conversion of Russia by missionaries from Constantinople redress somewhat the balance between Eastern and Western Christianity. The attempt to revive the Roman Empire in the West under Charlemagne in the 9th century produced the first overt tension between Rome and Constantinople, where minor differences in doctrine and ritual became an occasion of schism. The chief of these differences was the Western belief that the Holy Spirit, one of the three persons of the Trinity, proceeds from the Son as well as the Father, rather than, as the Greeks hold, from the Father alone. Greeks took offense when Western Christians inserted words to that effect (the Filioque clause) in the Nicene Creed and when Westerners charged them with heretically omitting them. Such differences caused a lasting schism that dates in church history from the mutual excommunications (1054) of Pope Leo IX and Michael Cerularius, the patriarch of Constantinople; this mutual nonrecognition persisted until 1965. The infamous Fourth Crusade, which overthrew the Byzantine emperor, sacked Constantinople, and installed a Latin patriarch submissive to the pope in 1204, created such ill-feeling in the East that later attempts at reunion were doomed. Since then Eastern Orthodoxy has maintained its identity and the loyalty of its people in the face of hostile Roman Catholic, Muslim, and (for much of the 20th century) communist domination in all or most of its territory. From the fall of the revived Byzantine Empire to the Turks in 1453 until the Revolution of 1917, the Russian church was the leader of world Orthodoxy. Immigrants from eastern Europe and the Balkans established Orthodoxy in North American religious life in the 19th and 20th centuries. Most Orthodox in America remain organized along ethnic lines in churches that retain their European ties. The beauty and richness of its ceremonial worship is the most striking characteristic of Eastern Orthodoxy. Iconsformal paintings of Christ, the Mother of God, and the saintsplay an important role in Orthodox worship. Orthodox theologians maintain that the veneration (as distinguished from worship) of icons results necessarily from Christian belief that God became man in the person of Jesus Christ, thereby divinizing human nature. The Orthodox commemorate the promulgation of the decrees of the second Council of Nicaea (787), which validated the veneration of icons, and the end of the Iconoclastic Controversy in 843 in the Feast of Orthodoxy on the First Sunday of Lent. Monasticism and monastic spirituality have long played a vital role in Orthodoxy. All Eastern Orthodox bishops must be monks (and, hence, celibate), although married men may become priests. Monasticism has fostered Hesychasm, a distinctively Eastern form of mysticism, which employs breathing techniques and special posture, along with continual repetition of the Jesus prayer, as aids to obtaining a vision of the so-called uncreated energies of the Godhead manifested as light. St. Gregory Palamas (fl. early 14th century), a monk of Mount Athos, the great monastic community in northern Greece, gave Hesychasm its classic theological formulation. The Eastern Orthodox churches have participated actively in the ecumenical movement of the 20th century. Most Orthodox churches have joined with the major Protestant churches as members of the World Council of Churches and have entered into theological discussions with many churches in order to promote understanding and unity. Relations between Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, in particular, have improved dramatically, especially since the removal of the anathemas of 1054. At the same time, the Orthodox have shown a determination to preserve their church's integrity and not to compromise their duty as legatees of a great tradition. official name Orthodox Catholic Church one of the three major doctrinal and jurisdictional groups of Christianity. It is characterized by its continuity with the apostolic church, its liturgy, and its territorial churches. Its adherents live mainly in the Balkans, the Middle East, and Russia. Additional reading General Introductory surveys of the history and doctrines of Eastern Orthodoxy may be found in Ernst Benz, The Eastern Orthodox Church, Its Thought and Life (1963; originally published in German, 1957); Timothy Ware (kallistos Ware), The Orthodox Church (1963, reprinted with revisions, 1984); John Meyendorff, The Orthodox Church: Its Past and Its Role in the World Today, 3rd rev. ed. (1981; originally published in French, 1960), with special attention given to 19th- and 20th-century history; and Demetrios J. Constantelos, Understanding the Greek Orthodox Church: Its Faith, History, and Practice (1982). History Overviews of the history of the Eastern Orthodox church are provided by Nicolas Zernov, Eastern Christendom: A Study of the Origin and Development of the Eastern Orthodox Church (1961); Alexander Schmemann, The Historical Road of Eastern Orthodoxy (1963, reprinted 1977; originally published in Russian, 1954); and John Meyendorff, The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church (1982). The best special account of the church in Byzantium until 1261 is found in George Every, The Byzantine Patriarchate, 4511204, 2nd ed. rev. (1962, reprinted 1980). Other works on Byzantine Orthodoxy include Steven Runciman, The Byzantine Theocracy (1977), on the relationship between church and state; and J.M. Hussey, The Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire (1986). On the schism between Orthodoxy and Rome, Steven Runciman, The Eastern Schism (1955, reprinted 1983); and Yves Congar, After Nine Hundred Years: The Background of the Schism Between the Eastern and Western Churches (1959, reprinted 1978), are useful. Steven Runciman, The Great Church in Captivity: A Study of the Patriarchate of Constantinople from the Eve of the Turkish Conquest to the Greek War of Independence (1968, reissued 1985), critically evaluates the Greek struggle for survival in the Ottoman Empire.The history of the Orthodox church in Russia is told in Valeri Lobachev and Vladimir Pravotorov, A Millennium of Russian Orthodoxy (1988); George P. Fedotov, The Russian Religious Mind, 2 vol. (194666, reissued 1975), the best general account of Russian medieval Christianity; Dimitry Pospielovsky, The Russian Church Under the Soviet Regime, 19171982, 2 vol. (1984), with a comprehensive bibliography; William B. Stroyen, Communist Russia and the Russian Orthodox Church, 19431962 (1967), a sociological analysis; and Jane Ellis, The Russian Orthodox Church: A Contemporary History (1986), from the mid-1960s to the mid-1980s. Doctrine and sacraments Doctrinal aspects of the Eastern Orthodox church are detailed by Serge Bulgakov, The Orthodox Church (1935, reissued 1988; originally published in French, 1932); and Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (1957, reprinted 1976; originally published in French, 1944), a classic on Godman relations, and Orthodox Theology: An Introduction (1978). The evolution of Orthodox theology in the Byzantine period is described in Jaroslav Pelikan, The Christian Tradition: A History of the Development of Doctrine, vol. 2, The Spirit of Eastern Christendom (6001700) (1975); and John Meyendorff, Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes, 2nd ed. (1979). George A. Maloney, A History of Orthodox Theology Since 1453 (1976), covers developments since the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in five Orthodox traditions: Russian, Greek, Serbian, Bulgarian, and Romanian. Arthur Carl Piepkorn, Profiles in Belief: The Religious Bodies of the United States and Canada, vol. 1, Roman Catholic, Old Catholic, Eastern Orthodox (1977), is written for the layperson.Alexander Schmemann, For the Life of the World: Sacraments and Orthodoxy, 2nd rev. and expanded ed. (1973, reissued 1982), is the basic approach to liturgy and sacraments. Leonid Ouspensky and Vladimir Lossky, The Meaning of Icons, 2nd ed. (1982; originally published in German, 1952), interprets the icon in its theological and liturgical contexts. The church and the world Ancient and modern missions are described by Francis Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among the Slavs: SS. Constantine-Cyril and Methodius (1970); Serge Bolshakoff, The Foreign Missions of the Russian Orthodox Church (1943); and Constance J. Tarasar (ed.), Orthodox America, 17941976: Development of the Orthodox Church in America (1975).Differences between Orthodoxy and two other Christian denominations are summarized in John Meyendorff, Orthodoxy and Catholicity (1966; originally published in French, 1965); and Carnegie Samuel Calian, Icon and Pulpit: The Protestant-Orthodox Encounter (1968).Analyses of the relationship between the Eastern Orthodox Church and the state can be found in Charles A. Frazee, The Orthodox Church and Independent Greece, 18211852 (1969), which uses contemporary diplomatic archives to describe the role of the Greek Church in an event that also involved all major European powers; Steven Runciman, The Orthodox Churches and the Secular State (1971), covering the period from the Byzantine Empire to the contemporary situations under Communism, Islam, and dictators; and Pedro Ramet (ed.), Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twentieth Century (1988). The Rev. John Meyendorff The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica Doctrine Councils and confessions All Orthodox credal formulas, liturgical texts, and doctrinal statements affirm the claim that the Orthodox Church has preserved the original apostolic faith, which was also expressed in the common Christian tradition of the first centuries. The Orthodox Church recognizes as ecumenical the seven councils of Nicaea I (325), Constantinople I (381), Ephesus (431), Chalcedon (451), Constantinople II (553), Constantinople III (681), and Nicaea II (787) but considers that the decrees of several other later councils also reflect the same original faith (e.g., the councils of Constantinople that endorsed the theology of St. Gregory Palamas in the 14th century). Finally, it recognizes itself as the bearer of an uninterrupted living tradition of true Christianity that is expressed in its worship, in the lives of the saints, and in the faith of the whole people of God. In the 17th century, as a counterpart to the various confessions of the Reformation, there appeared several Orthodox confessions, endorsed by local councils but, in fact, associated with individual authors (e.g., Metrophanes Critopoulos, 1625; Peter Mogila, 1638; Dostheos of Jerusalem, 1672). None of these confessions would be recognized today as having anything but historical importance. When expressing the beliefs of his church, the Orthodox theologian, rather than seeking literal conformity with any of these particular confessions, will rather look for consistency with Scripture and tradition, as it has been expressed in the ancient councils, the early Fathers, and the uninterrupted life of the liturgy. He will not shy away from new formulations if consistency and continuity of tradition are preserved. What is particularly characteristic of this attitude toward the faith is the absence of any great concern for establishing external criteria of trutha concern that has dominated Western Christian thought since the Middle Ages. Truth appears as a living experience accessible in the communion of the church and of which the Scriptures, the councils, and theology are the normal expressions. Even ecumenical councils, in the Orthodox perspective, need subsequent reception by the body of the church in order to be recognized as truly ecumenical. Ultimately, therefore, truth is viewed as its own criterion: there are signs that point to it, but none of these signs is a substitute for a free and personal experience of truth, which is made accessible in the sacramental fellowship of the church. Because of this view of truth, the Orthodox have traditionally been reluctant to involve church authority in defining matters of faith with too much precision and detail. This reluctance is not due to relativism or indifference but rather to the belief that truth needs no definition to be the object of experience and that legitimate definition, when it occurs, should aim mainly at excluding error and not at pretending to reveal the truth itself that is believed to be ever present in the church. God and man The development of the doctrines concerning the Trinity and the incarnation, as it took place during the first eight centuries of Christian history, was related to the concept of man's participation in divine life. The Greek Fathers of the church always implied that the phrase found in the biblical story of the creation of man (Gen. 1:26), according to the image and likeness of God, meant that man is not an autonomous being and that his ultimate nature is defined by his relation to God, his prototype. In paradise Adam and Eve were called to participate in God's life and to find in him the natural growth of their humanity from glory to glory. To be in God is, therefore, the natural state of man. This doctrine is particularly important in connection with the Fathers' view of human freedom. For theologians such as Gregory of Nyssa (4th century) and Maximus the Confessor (7th century) man is truly free only when he is in communion with God; otherwise he is only a slave to his body or to the world, over which, originally and by God's command, he was destined to rule. Thus, the concept of sin implies separation from God and the reduction of man to a separate and autonomous existence, in which he is deprived of both his natural glory and his freedom. He becomes an element subject to cosmic determinism, and the image of God is thus blurred within him. Freedom in God, as enjoyed by Adam, implied the possibility of falling away from God. This is the unfortunate choice made by man, which led Adam to a subhuman and unnatural existence. The most unnatural aspect of his new state was death. In this perspective, original sin is understood not so much as a state of guilt inherited from Adam but as an unnatural condition of human life that ends in death. Mortality is what each man now inherits at his birth and this is what leads him to struggle for existence, to self-affirmation at the expense of others, and ultimately to subjection to the laws of animal life. The prince of this world (i.e., Satan), who is also the murderer from the beginning, has dominion over man. From this vicious circle of death and sin, man is understood to be liberated by the death and Resurrection of Christ, which is actualized in Baptism and the sacramental life in the church. The general framework of this understanding of the Godman relationship is clearly different from the view that became dominant in the Christian Westi.e., the view that conceived of nature as distinct from grace and that understood original sin as an inherited guilt rather than as a deprivation of freedom. In the East, man is regarded as fully man when he participates in God; in the West, man's nature is believed to be autonomous, sin is viewed as a punishable crime, and grace is understood to grant forgiveness. Hence, in the West, the aim of the Christian is justification, but in the East, it is rather communion with God and deification. In the West, the church is viewed in terms of mediation (for the bestowing of grace) and authority (for guaranteeing security in doctrine); in the East, the church is regarded as a communion in which God and man meet once again and a personal experience of divine life becomes possible. The church and the world The schism between the Greek and the Latin churches coincided chronologically with a surge of Christian missionary activity in northern and eastern Europe. Both sides contributed to the resultant expansion of Christianity but used different methods. The West imposed a Latin liturgy on the new converts and thus made Latin the only vehicle of Christian civilization and a major instrument of ecclesiastical unity. The East, meanwhile, as noted above, accepted from the start the principle of translating both the Scriptures and the liturgy into the spoken tongues of the converted nations. Christianity thus became integrated into the indigenous cultures of the Slavic nations, and the universal Orthodox Church evolved as a fellowship of national churches rather than as a centralized body. Missions: ancient and modern The Christian East, in spite of the integrating forces of Christian Hellenism, was always culturally pluralistic: since the first centuries of Christianity, Syrians, Armenians, Georgians, Copts, Ethiopians, and other ethnic groups used their own languages in worship and developed their own liturgical traditions. Even though by the time of the Greek missions to the Slavs the Byzantine Church was almost monolithically Greek, the idea of a liturgy in the vernacular was still quite alive, as is demonstrated by the use of the Slavic language by the missionaries of SS. Cyril and Methodius in the 9th century. The Turkish conquest of the Middle East and of the Balkans (15th century) interrupted the missionary expansion of the Orthodox Church. Throughout the Middle Ages, Islam and Christianity had usually confronted each other only militarily, and the victory of Islam meant that the Christians could survive only in enclaves and were legally excluded from proselytizing among Muslims. The Russian Church alone was able to continue the tradition of SS. Cyril and Methodius, and it did so almost without interruption until the modern period. In the 14th century St. Stephen of Perm translated the Scriptures and the liturgy into the language of a Finnish tribe of the Russian north and became the first bishop of the Zyrians. The expansion of the Russian Empire in Asia was accompanied by efforts of evangelization thatsometimes in opposition to the avowed policy of Russianization practiced by the government of St. Petersburgfollowed the Cyrillo-Methodian pattern of translation. This method was utilized among the Tatars of the Volga in the 16th century and among the various peoples of Siberia throughout the 18th and the 19th centuries. In 1714 a mission was established in China. In 1794 monks of the Valamo Abbey reached Alaska; their spiritual leader, the monk Herman, was canonized by the Orthodox Church in 1970. Missions in the Islamic sphere resumed to the extent that by the year 1903 the liturgy was celebrated in more than 20 languages in the region of Kazan. The Alaskan mission was under the direction of a modest priest sent to America from eastern Siberia, Ivan Veniaminov. During his long stay in America, first as a priest, then as a bishop (182468), he engaged in the work of translating the Gospels and the liturgy into the languages of the Aleuts, the Tlingit Indians, and the Eskimos of Alaska. In Japan an Orthodox Church was established by the recently canonized St. Nikolay Kasatkin (died 1913). The distinctively Japanese character of this church enabled it to survive the political trials of the Russo-Japanese War (190405), of the Russian Revolution, and of World War II. The new Church of Japan received its full autonomy from the Russian Church in 1970. The missionary tradition is also being revived in Greece. Various Greek associations are dedicated to the pursuit of missionary work in East Africa, where sizable indigenous groups have recently joined the Orthodox Church.

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