GARDEN AND LANDSCAPE DESIGN

the development and decorative planting of gardens, yards, grounds, parks, and other types of areas. Gardening and landscape design is used to enhance the settings for buildings and public areas and in recreational areas and parks. It is one of the decorative arts and is allied to architecture, city planning, and horticulture. The vegetated landscape that covered most of the Earth's continents before humans began to build still surrounds and penetrates even the largest metropolises. Efforts to design gardens and to preserve and develop green open space in and around cities are efforts to maintain contact with the original pastoral, rural landscape. Gardens and designed landscapes, by filling the open areas in cities, create a continuity in space between structural urban landscapes and the open rural landscapes beyond. Moreover, gardens and designed landscapes have a special type of continuity in time. Buildings, paintings, and sculpture may survive longer than specific plants, but the constant cyclical growth and change in plants provide a continuous time dimension that static structures and sculpture can never achieve. This article discusses the functional aspects of landscaping, the aesthetic and physical components of design, the various kinds of private and public design, and the role and development of gardening in human history. Additional reading History General works include Derek Clifford, A History of Garden Design, 2nd ed. (1966), an attempt to relate garden design to cultural history; and Marie Luise Gothein, A History of Garden Art, 2 vol. (1928; originally published in German, 1914), the most valuable detailed general history. National studies America William Cobbett, The American Gardener (1819); A.J. Downing, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (1841, reissued 1977); Frederick L. Olmsted, Forty Years of Landscape Architecture, 2 vol. (192228; reprinted in 1 vol., 1970). Brazil P.M. Bardi, The Tropical Gardens of Burle Marx (1964). China Osvald Siren, Gardens of China (1949). Great Britain Alicia Amherst, A History of Gardening in England, 3rd ed. (1910); Sir Reginald Blomfield and F. Inigo Thomas, The Formal Garden in England, 3rd ed. (1901, reprinted 1972); Miles Hadfield, Gardening in Britain (1960); Christopher Hussey, English Gardens and Landscapes, 17001750 (1967); Edward S. Hyams, The English Garden (1964), a well-informed guidebook. India C.M. Villiers-Stuart, Gardens of the Great Mughals (1913, reprinted 1979); Sylvia Crowe, The Gardens of Mughal India: A History and a Guide (1972). Italy J.C. Shepherd and G.A. Jellicoe, Italian Gardens of the Renaissance, 3rd ed. (1966), the best book; Georgina Masson, Italian Gardens, new ed. (1966), a well-informed but not always accurate guidebook that lacks historical coherence; H. Inigo Trigg, The Art of Garden Design in Italy (1906), the source of many 20th-century reproductions of Italian gardens; Edith Wharton, Italian Villas and Their Gardens (1904, reissued 1976), still worth attention. Japan Loraine E. Kuck, The World of the Japanese Garden (1968, reissued 1980), the best book; Josiah Condor, Landscape Gardening in Japan (1893); Jiro Harada, The Gardens of Japan (1928); Takeji Iwamiya, Imperial Gardens of Japan (1970). Persia Donald N. Wilber, Persian Gardens and Garden Pavilions, 2nd ed. (1979). Spain C.M. Villiers-Stuart, Spanish Gardens: Their History, Types and Features (1929). Modern works Peter F. Shepheard, Modern Gardens (1953); Thomas D. Church, Gardens Are for People, 2nd ed. (1983); James C. Rose, Creative Gardens (1958); Garrett Eckbo, The Art of Home Landscaping (1956), and The Landscape We See (1969); Peter Coats, Great Gardens of the Western World (1963); Elizabeth B. Kassler, Modern Gardens and the Landscape, rev. ed. (1984); Susan and Geoffrey Jellicoe, Modern Private Gardens (1968); Geoffrey Jellicoe, Studies in Landscape Design (1960); Lawrence Halprin, Cities (1963, reissued 1972); Edmund N. Bacon, Design of Cities, rev. ed. (1974); Ian L. McHarg, Design with Nature (1969, reissued 1971). Derek Plint Clifford Garrett Eckbo Historical development Western Antiquity Egyptian The earliest surviving detailed garden plan, dating from about 1400 BC, is of a garden belonging to an Egyptian high court official at Thebes. The main entrance is aligned on a pergola (trellis-bordered) walk of vines leading directly to the dwelling. The rest of the garden is laid out with tree-lined avenues, four rectangular ponds containing waterfowl, and two garden pavilions. Although rigidly symmetrical, the garden is divided into self-contained, walled enclosures, so that the symmetry of the whole could not have been apparent to the viewer. Such a highly developed pattern argues a considerable incubation period, and it is likely that similar enclosed pleasure gardens had been designed as early as 2800 BC. Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian Artist's re-creation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, constructed c. 8th6th century The gardens of Assyria, Babylon, and Persia were of three kinds: large, enclosed game reserves such as the garden of Eden described by the Hebrews in the Old Testament; pleasure gardens, which were essentially places where shade and cool water could be privately enjoyed; and sacred enclosures rising in man-made terraces, planted with trees and shrubs, forming an artificial hill such as the Hanging Garden of Babylon (see photograph).