INDIAN LITERATURE

writings of the Indian subcontinent, produced there in a variety of languages, including Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali, Bengali, Bihari, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Malayalam, Oriya, Punjabi, Rajasthani, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, and Sindhi. The earliest Indian literature took the form of the canonical Hindu sacred writings, known as the Veda, which were written in Sanskrit. To the Veda were added prose commentaries such as the Bra hmanas and the Upanishads. The production of Sanskrit literature extended from about 1400 BC to AD 1200 and reached its height of development in the 1st to 7th centuries AD. In addition to sacred and philosophical writings, such genres as erotic and devotional lyrics, court poetry, plays, and narrative folktales emerged. Because Sanskrit was identified with the Brahminical religion of the Vedas, reform movements such as Buddhism and Jainism adopted other literary languages, e.g., Pali and Ardhamagadhi, respectively. Out of these and other derivative languages there evolved the modern languages of northern India. The literature of those languages depended largely on the ancient Indian background, which includes the Sanskrit epics, the Mahabharata and Ramayana, the Krishna story as told in the Bhagavata-Purana, the other Puranic legends, and the fable anthologies. In addition, the Sanskrit philosophies were the source of philosophical writing in the later literatures, and the Sanskrit schools of rhetoric were of great importance for the development of court poetry in many of the modern literatures. The South Indian language of Tamil is an exception to this pattern of Sanskrit influence because it had a classical tradition of its own. Urdu and Sindhi are other exceptions, having arisen out of an Islamic background. Beginning in the 19th century, British and Western literary models in general had a great impact on Indian literature, the most striking result being the introduction of the use of vernacular prose on a major scale. Such previously unknown forms as the novel and short story began to be adopted by Indian writers, as did realism and a new interest in social questions and psychological description. See also specific Indian literatures.