MADAGASCAR

officially Republic of Madagascar, Malagasy Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, French Rpublique de Madagascar nation occupying the island of Madagascar, the world's fourth largest island, lying off the southeast coast of Africa in the southwestern Indian Ocean. Madagascar island extends about 976 miles (1,570 km) from southwest to northeast and is about 355 miles (571 km) at its widest extent from east to west. It lies almost entirely within the tropics. The island of Madagascar is separated from the African coast by the 250-mile- (400-kilometre-) wide Mozambique Channel. The coastline of the island is some 2,480 miles (3,990 km) in length. The capital is Antananarivo. Area, including several minor adjacent islands, 226,658 square miles (587,041 square km). Pop. (1993 est.) 13,255,000. officially Republic of Madagascar, Malagasy Madagasikara or Repoblikan'i Madagasikara, French Madagascar or Rpublique de Madagascar country lying off the southeastern coast of Africa. It occupies the fourth largest island in the worldafter Greenland, New Guinea, and Borneowith a surface area of 226,658 square miles (587,041 square kilometres). Located in the southwestern Indian Ocean, it is separated from the African coast by the 250-mile- (400-kilometre-) wide Mozambique Channel. In spite of Madagascar's proximity to the continent, its population is primarily related not to African peoples but rather to those of Indonesia, more than 3,000 miles to the east. The Malagasy peoples, moreover, do not consider themselves to be Africans, but, because of the continuing bond with France that resulted from former colonial rule, the island has developed political, economic, and cultural links with the French-speaking countries of western Africa. French and Malagasy are the country's official languages. Madagascar remains a geographic and historical paradox, linked in practice to Africa but identified in feeling with Indonesia, which is so far away as to have hardly any awareness of Madagascar or to maintain any contemporary ties of substance with it. The animal life and vegetation of the island are equally anomalous, differing greatly from that of nearby Africa and being, in many respects, unique. Although the coastlands have been known to Europeans for more than 400 years and to Arabs for much longer, recent historical development has been more intense and concentrated in the central plateau, which contains the capital city of Antananarivo (formerly Tananarive). The road network and communications are generally better on the plateau, where the majority of the inhabitants have received some school education and are professing Christians, while in the coastal areas the majority follow traditional religions and generally have not attended school. Aidan William Southall Administration and social conditions Government The Malagasy Republic became independent in 1960, having been an autonomous republic in the French Community from 1958 (see History). The country was ruled from 1960 to 1972 through a bicameral legislature consisting of a national assembly, directly elected by universal adult suffrage, and a senate, one-third of which was nominated by the president and the rest of which was indirectly elected. Between 1972 and 1975 Madagascar was under military rule. Radical political and economic reorganization was instituted in 1975, and a new constitution was implemented later that year for the renamed Democratic Republic of Madagascar. The constitution established a presidency; the Supreme Revolutionary Council, a body of members including the president, prime minister, military chiefs, some ministers, and other nominated leaders; a Cabinet, composed of the prime minister and other ministers; a unicameral legislature, the People's National Assembly, composed of deputies directly elected for five years; a Military Development Committee for advice on defense and economic policy; and a National Front for the Defense of the Revolution (Front National pour la Dfense de la Rvolution), grouping all parties willing to support the government and led by the Advance Guard of the Malagasy Revolution (Avant-garde de la Rvolution Malgache) with its Red Book (Boky Mena) manifesto. The government was fairly well-balanced ethnically, and the old polarization of coastal and plateau peoples was diminished, although the Merina continued to dominate the civil service, professions, and education. There was a many-layered local electoral system in which thousands of local village communities elected delegates to associations of village councils, which then sent delegates to district groupings, which, in turn, sent delegates to six provincial councils. Power was in the hands of party delegates at all levels, under military oversight, rather than with the former bureaucratic hierarchy that existed before the reorganization. With the subsequent failure of the government's utopian policies and the devastation and virtual bankruptcy of the economy, the constitution was relaxed, again allowing for opposition parties, of which two emerged very powerful. Pressing for abolition of the Supreme Revolutionary Council and the Military Development Committee, the opposition has also sought another new constitution. Justice The former Merina state that ruled the island throughout the 19th century had an elaborate system of laws, courts, and justice. The present Malagasy legal system, however, is based upon French codes and practices, and most judges and magistrates have had French training. There is a Constitutional High Court, an appellate court, criminal tribunals, and tribunals of first instance; there is also a criminal code, a code of criminal procedure, and a code of civil procedure. The customary law of the Merina and other ethnic groups is taken into account by state magistrates when judging marriage, family, land, and inheritance cases. The armed forces The army played no direct political role in Madagascar until 1972, although the presence of French army units had bolstered the former government. The French troops were withdrawn in 1973, and the French naval base at Antsiranana was handed over to Madagascar in 1975. The Malagasy armed forces consist of an army, a navy, and an air force. There is also a large paramilitary force, as well as a secret police. Detachments of local police are stationed at the headquarters of each administrative division, as well as in Antananarivo. The whole force is under unified command and falls within the responsibility of the ministry of the interior. Education The educational system consists of primary and secondary schools, technical institutes, teacher-training colleges, and a university system. Enrollment at the University of Madagascar (founded in 1955) and its five regional branches has increased dramatically in the late 20th century. There has been an increased use of the Malagasy language in teaching, although some coastal peoples have objected because of the language's close relationship to the Merina people. The level both of school attendance and of educational attainment is higher on the plateau than in the coastal areas. Protestant and Roman Catholic missions have been providing education since the 19th century, and the missions continue to educate a large proportion of the schoolchildren, although the government now maintains official schools at all levels and is attempting to phase out private education. In the main towns there are other privately run schools, catering to those unable to enter either government or mission schools. About two-thirds of Madagascar's population is literate, and the majority of illiterate persons are female. Health and welfare Malagasy doctors began to practice Western medicine in 1880; and a medical school was established in Antananarivo. The health system includes principal and secondary hospitals, dispensaries, and medical centres. Medical personnel include doctors, as well as pharmacists, dentists, midwives, social assistants, visiting nurses, and health assistants. Hospitals and specialists are mainly in the towns, apart from some rural hospitals run by Christian missions. Health insurance and other social benefits are available mainly to better-paid workers and professionals among the employed population. The extension of health services is largely credited for the steady population increase. Infant mortality remains high, but infant deaths from malaria, which is endemic all over the island, have been cut by half. Debilitating parasitic diseases, such as schistosomiasis, an infection of the bladder or intestines, remain serious and are hard to control since their breeding grounds are the irrigated rice fields and the streams that feed them. Venereal disease is also widespread, especially in its incipient form. Housing Houses are typically rectangular and crowned with steeply angled roofs. In the rural areas, most houses are made of either mud and wattle or woven matting supported by poles. In the eastern forest, they are built of interlaced split bamboo and are thatched with palm, while, in the south, overlapping upright wooden planks are used for the walls. In the plateau, rural housing is constructed of earth blocks and thatched roofing, while upper-income and most urban housing consists of two- or three-story homestypically with kitchen at the top, living quarters in the middle, and storage belowall surrounded by wide balconies supported by brick columns and crowned with steep tiled roofs. This is the lofty Indonesian style of architecture, transformed by new techniques contributed by the missionaries. The original style survives in the house of Andrianampoinimerina (reigned 17871810) at Ambohimanga and reaches its apotheosis in the queen's palace built by Jean Laborde in the 19th century. The government-sponsored housing authority conducts research into design, materials, and production methods and is seeking to promote inexpensive urban housing, but the problem of overcrowding is expected to increase with continued urban growth. The existence of a well-established craft of house construction, however, may successfully alleviate housing pressures without resorting to imported materials or relying on foreign enterprise. Social and economic divisions Traditionally, society was divided into three castesthe nobles, the freemen, and the former slaves and their descendants. These social distinctions are no longer strict and are manifest only on ceremonial occasions, such as weddings and funerals. They do, however, form the basis of other economic and social distinctions. During the 19th century, the Merina elite conquered the island, established themselves as rulers, and adopted Protestant Christianity; in the late 1800s, some became Roman Catholics. Under French rule in the 20th century, the Merina retained their supremacy in education, business, and the professions, while the remainder of the population retained its sense of difference from the dominant peoples and some adopted Roman Catholicism. A further distinction is made between the peoples of the plateau and those of the coast, who are called ctiers. The coastal peoples feel deprived of the education, power, and wealth that is concentrated on the plateau. Since independence, the government has been composed of ctiers, and a conscious effort has been made to keep the Merina elite of the plateau from power. Cultural life The cultural milieu The culture is basically Indonesian. Arabic and Islamic contributions include an intricate system of divination, or sikidy, and calendrical features, such as the Arabic-derived names of the days of the week, which also apply to the markets held on those days. The coastal areas of the west, north, and south might be expected to show African cultural elements, but, apart from some Bantu words, these are often difficult to identify conclusively. The state of the arts The conquest of the plateau peoples by the French and their subsequent assimilation of Western values have deprived them of most of their traditional institutions. In music, however, Western dance and musical instruments have been adapted to Malagasy rhythms. The tube zither, the conch, and the cone drum are of Indonesian origin, while other types of drums and animal horns suggest African influence. Folk music has been retained, but much of the singing consists of Western church hymns and chants adapted to the distinctive Malagasy musical style. Social and religious life on the plateau centres upon the church congregation, and the cultural emphasis on ancestral tombs is now largely expressed in Christian terms. More time, money, and care are spent on building tombs than houses. The dead are always brought back to their ancestral tombs, however long or far away they have spent their lives. Tombs are opened every few years, the remains taken out and carried in procession with much ceremony, then replaced after being rewrapped in new shrouds, which are still woven from locally produced silk, coloured with natural, herbal dyes. The male peasants wear cloth trousers with tunics reaching to the knees. Women wear cloth dresses but wrap a silk cloth under one arm and over the other shoulder, even when wearing Western fashions. The coastal peoples have retained more of their traditional customs. Funeral practices are similar to those of the plateau, with local variations of detail. In the eastern forests men wear shorts rather than trousers, and many still wear the short tunic that is woven from raffia fibres. In the far south some older men wear a homespun silk cloth that is wrapped around the waist and between the legs, but most have adopted imported cotton clothes. The Mahafaly have a remarkable wood-carving industry, and their tombs of coloured stones and carved wooden posts are the most beautiful on the island. The Betsileo also have a thriving wood-carving industry, making inlaid furniture of valuable hardwoods. They also produce ornamental cloths of very finely woven raffia and have become specialists in the production of coloured straw hats. Betsileo and Merina women have become experts in French-style embroidery, sewing, and dressmaking. The Malagasy language is rich in proverbs, and there is now an extensive written literature including poetry, legend, history, and scholarly works, as well as contemporary themes. Literary production is aided by an excellent printing industry, for which the Merina have shown a flair since learning it from the London Missionary Society in the 1820s. The peoples of the southeast still preserve their manuscripts in Arabic script with great reverence; few can be more than 200 years old, although some may be copies of much earlier manuscripts. Cultural institutions The government encourages the blending of old and new cultural expressions, and a number of new seasonal festivals have been promoted, including the Festival of Rice, the Festival of the Trees, the Festival of the Party, and Independence Day. Towns, churches, schools, and private groups hold concerts or dances, and in the cities there are cultural associations based on the members' home districts. The main libraries and museums, located in Antananarivo, include the National Library, the Municipal Library, and the National Archive. There are also the library of the Malagasy Academy, the university library, and the university museum. There are museum collections of Malagasy culture and archaeology; natural science collections include a zoo with animals specific to Madagascar. The press and broadcasting There are daily and other newspapers published in French and Malagasy, and a government gazette is also published. The island receives radio, television, and telephone service. Aidan William Southall