NICARAGUA

officially Republic of Nicaragua, Spanish Repblica de Nicaragua largest country of Central America, covering an area of 50,464 square miles (130,700 square km). The capital is Managua. Nicaragua's maximum length from north to south is about 275 miles (440 km), and its maximum width from east to west is about 280 miles (450 km). It is bordered by Honduras on the north, the Caribbean Sea on the east, Costa Rica on the south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. The population in 1990 was estimated to be 3,871,000. officially Republic of Nicaragua, Spanish Repblica de Nicaragua country of Central America. It is bounded by Honduras on the north, the Caribbean Sea on the east, Costa Rica on the south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. It is the largest of the Central American republics, with an area of 50,464 square miles (130,700 square kilometres). Its population, mostly mestizo, represents a racial mixture that reflects the country's history. The capital is Managua, the nation's largest city. Nicaragua can be characterized by its agricultural economy, its history of autocratic government, and its imbalance of regional development; almost all settlement and economic activities are concentrated in the western half of the country. The economy depends heavily on the export of primary products. The family of Anastasio Somoza Garca dominated the government from 1936 to 1979, when it was toppled by an insurrection led by the Sandinista National Liberation Front. Sandinista-dominated governments ruled until 1990, when their conservative opposition won a national election. Additional reading Geography Kent Norsworthy and Tom Barry, Nicaragua: A Country Guide, 2nd ed. (1990), is a good general introduction. Coverage of the country's geography is provided in Jaime Incer, Geografa ilustrada de Nicaragua (1973). History General works on Nicaraguan history and politics include John A. Booth, The End and the Beginning: The Nicaraguan Revolution, 2nd ed., rev. and updated (1985); and Thomas W. Walker, Nicaragua: The Land of Sandino, 3rd ed., rev. and updated (1991). Karl Bermann, Under the Big Stick: Nicaragua and the United States Since 1848 (1986), provides a solid overview of U.S. involvement in Nicaragua. Important historical studies of prerevolutionary Nicaragua include E. Bradford Burns, Patriarch and Folk: The Emergence of Nicaragua, 17981858 (1991); Neill Macauley, The Sandino Affair (1967, reprinted 1985); Richard Millett, Guardians of the Dynasty (1977); Knut Walter, The Regime of Anastasio Somoza, 19361956 (1993); and Bernard Diederich, Somoza and the Legacy of U.S. Involvement in Central America (1981).There are many books on aspects of the Sandinista period. One comprehensive, multidisciplinary overview of the subject is Thomas W. Walker (ed.), Revolution & Counterrevolution in Nicaragua (1991). Within this broad area there are books with more particular topic foci. Donald C. Hodges, Intellectual Foundations of the Nicaraguan Revolution (1986), provides useful insights into the ideological underpinnings of the revolution. Dennis Gilbert, Sandinistas: The Party and the Revolution (1988), gives an informed critique of the Sandinista elite. Two books that examine the general conflict between the United States and the Sandinistas are Peter Kornbluh, Nicaragua: The Price of Intervention: Reagan's Wars Against the Sandinistas (1987); and Thomas W. Walker (ed.), Reagan Versus the Sandinistas: The Undeclared War on Nicaragua (1987). Specific aspects of that conflict are covered in Bernard Nietschmann, The Unknown War: The Miskito Nation, Nicaragua, and the United States (1989); and William I. Robinson, A Faustian Bargain: U.S. Intervention in the Nicaraguan Elections and American Foreign Policy in the Post-Cold War Era (1992). Insight into other aspects of the Sandinista period are provided in Robert F. Arnove, Education and Revolution in Nicaragua (1986); Michael Dodson and Laura Nuzzi O'Shaughnessy, Nicaragua's Other Revolution: Religious Faith and Political Struggle (1990); Laura J. Enrquez, Harvesting Change: Labor and Agrarian Reform in Nicaragua, 19791990 (1991); Roger N. Lancaster, Life Is Hard: Machismo, Danger, and the Intimacy of Power in Nicaragua (1992); Kenneth J. Mijeski (ed.), The Nicaraguan Constitution of 1987; English Translation and Commentary (1991); Gary Ruchwarger, People in Power: Forging a Grassroots Democracy in Nicaragua (1987); and Mary B. Vanderlaan, Revolution and Foreign Policy in Nicaragua (1986).Two excellent annotated bibliographies are Ralph Lee Woodward, Jr. (compiler), Nicaragua, rev. and expanded ed. (1994); and Neil Snarr et al., Sandinista Nicaragua, 2 vol. (198990). Thomas W. Walker Administration and social conditions Government Nicaragua had 10 constitutions between 1838 and 1974. In 1979 a junta assumed power, supported by the Marxist-oriented Sandinista National Liberation Front (Frente Sandinista de Liberacin Nacional; FSLN). It replaced the long dictatorial reign of the Somoza family, which had lasted 43 years. The old constitution was abrogated. An elected president and National Assembly replaced the junta and its appointed council in 1985, and a new constitution was promulgated in 1987. During the social-revolutionary Sandinista administration, counterrevolutionary forces (Contras), who were organized in 1980 and supported originally by the Argentine army and later (1981) by the United States Central Intelligence Agency, waged an extensive war of attrition in the backlands. In the 1990 election the National Opposition Union (Unin Nacional Opositor; UNO), organized and funded by the U.S. government, was victorious over the FSLN, which had been significantly discredited by the deteriorating economy and general war weariness among the population. After the conservative government, headed by Violeta Barrios de Chamorro, was inaugurated in April, the war ended, the Contras and most of the army were demobilized, and many Sandinista policies were reversed. The Sandinistas retained some influence, however, through trade unions, peasant organizations, and what was left of the army. Education, health, and welfare After decades of neglect by the Somozas, social programs for the poor became a central concern of the Sandinistas. The 1980 National Literacy Crusade reduced adult illiteracy from more than 50 percent to less than 15 percent. Standard education at all levels was also greatly expanded. Health measures were taken that significantly reduced infant mortality and increased life expectancies. Welfare and social security programs were expanded. However, these programs suffered in the late 1980s from the impact of war and a collapsing economy. After 1990 they continued to decline as the conservative government implemented public-sector cutbacks. Nicaragua's oldest universities are the National Autonomous University (1812) and the Central American University (1961). Several other universities were founded in the 1980s and '90s. Cultural life Nicaragua has rich cultural traditions that reflect long-standing, sharp class and ethnic cleavages. The elite, professional tradition was exemplified in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the literary works of Rubn Daro, known as the prince of Spanish-American poetry. The folk traditions were expressed in beautiful arts and crafts, popular religious ceremonies, and country music (corridos). The drama and emotions of the insurrectionary and revolutionary periods from the late 1970s through 1990 produced a flourishing of artistic expression. Masterly work was exemplified in the paintings of Alejandro Canales, Armando Morales, and Leoncio Senz; the poetry of Gioconda Belli and Ernesto Cardenal; the novels of Vice President Sergio Ramrez; the testimonial narratives of Omar Cabezas; the New Song Movement led by Carlos Meja Godoy; and the theatre of Alan Bolt. Unlike the Somoza regime, which had valued elite (often imported) culture, the Sandinistas promoted what they termed democratizing, national, anti-imperialist art forms, both professional and amateur. A Ministry of Culture was established under the poet-priest Ernesto Cardenal, and a Sandinista Association of Cultural Workers was created and led by the poet First Lady Rosario Murillo. Both organizations built museums, sponsored professional artists, and created popular workshops to nurture the talents of citizens. In addition, various publishing outlets were funded by the government or the FSLN. However, when the economy collapsed in the late 1980s, austerity programs led to cutbacks in support for the arts, and the Ministry of Culture was closed in 1988. Cultural institutions Nicaragua's museums and libraries are relatively small and poorly maintained. The National Library and the National Museum (in Managua) as well as the Rubn Daro museum (in Ciudad Daro) were created prior to the revolution and are now in poor condition. The Sandinistas established the Museum of the Revolution and the Museum of the Literacy Crusade (in Managua), the Sandino Museum (in Niquinohomo), and others. These subsequently were abandoned or fell into disarray after 1990.