NORWAY

officially Kingdom of Norway, Norwegian Kongeriket Norge, country of northern Europe that occupies the western half of the Scandinavian peninsula. The country, called Norge in traditional Norwegian and Noreg in New Norwegian, has an area of 125,004 square miles (323,758 square km), excluding the dependencies of Svalbard, Jan Mayen, Bouvet Island, and Peter I Island. With the Barents Sea to the north, the Norwegian Sea and the North Sea to the west, and Skagerrak (Skager Strait) to the south, Norway has land borders only to the eastwith Sweden, Finland, and Russia. Nearly half of the inhabitants of the country live in the far south, in the region around Oslo, the capital. About two-thirds of Norway is mountainous, and off its much-indented coastline lie some 50,000 islands. Norway has always depended heavily on its economic relations with foreign countries; this has been the case both during its periods of independence and during those times when it has been politically united with fellow Scandinavian nations Sweden and Denmark. These foreign links are illustrated by the heritage of the Vikings, who plundered the coasts from the British Isles to the Mediterranean Sea and sailed the Atlantic Ocean to North America. Later the Norwegians turned to trading in fish and lumber, and the modern nation emerged as a major maritime transporter of the world's goods as well as a world leader in specialized shipbuilding. In the 1970s the exploitation of offshore oil and natural gas became the major maritime industry, with Norway emerging in the 1990s as one of the world's leading petroleum exporters. Lying on the northern outskirts of the European continent and thus avoiding the characteristics of a geographic crossroads, Norway (the northern way) has maintained a great homogeneity among its peoples and their way of life. Its projections for life expectancy are among the highest in the world. The main political division reflects differing views on the importance of free market forces; but the socialists long ago stopped insisting on nationalization of the nation's industry, and the nonsocialists have accepted extensive governmental control of the country's economy. Such evident national consensusalong with abundant waterpower, offshore oil, and peaceful labour relationshas been a major factor in the rapid growth of Norway as an industrial nation in the 20th century and in the creation of one of the highest standards of living in the world. Additional reading General works Magne Helvig and Viggo Johannessen, Norway: Land, People, Industries, 4th ed. (1974), provides a concise but informative introduction. A more comprehensive survey is found in Ronald G. Popperwell, Norway (1972). The Norwegian newspaper Aftenposten publishes a guidebook, Facts About Norway, 23rd ed. (1993). Other guides include Erling Welle-Strand, Tourist in Norway, 6th ed. (1980); Gunnar Jerman, New Norway 8, trans. from Norwegian by Rolf Gooderham (1993); and Arvid Bryne and Joan Henriksen, Norway, Behind the Scenery (1986).Current writings on the country's development, history, economics, and culture are found in the periodicals Norwegian Archaeological Review (semiannual); Scandinavian Journal of History (quarterly); Acta Borealia (semiannual); and The Scandinavian Economic History Review (3/yr.). Leland B. Sather (compiler), Norway, ed. by Hans H. Wellisch (1986), is an annotated bibliography of works in English. The economy, administration, and social conditions Arne Selbyg, Norway Today (1986), presents a brief overview of Norwegian society; whereas Natalie Rogoff Ramsy (ed.), Norwegian Society (1973; originally published in Norwegian, 1968), is a comprehensive survey. Special studies include Ian Whitaker, Social Relations in a Nomadic Lappish Community (1955); Robert Paine, Coast Lapp Society, 2 vol. (195765); Jon Leirfall, Old Times in Norway, trans. from Norwegian (1986); and Tove Stang Dahl, Child Welfare and Social Defence (1985; originally published in Norwegian, 1978). Political developments are surveyed in Henry Valen and Daniel Katz, Political Parties in Norway (1964); William M. Lafferty, Participation and Democracy in Norway (1981); and Johan Jrgen Holst (ed.), Norwegian Foreign Policy in the 1980s (1985). Economic history is traced in Thorvald Moe, Demographic Developments and Economic Growth in Norway, 17401940 (1977); Alan S. Milward, The Fascist Economy in Norway (1972); and Fritz Hodne, An Economic History of Norway, 18151970 (1975). Modern economic conditions are examined in Fritz Hodne, The Norwegian Economy, 19201980 (1983); John C. Ausland, Norway, Oil, and Foreign Policy (1979); and Walter Galenson, A Welfare State Strikes Oil: The Norwegian Experience (1986). Culture Gabriel Turville-Petre, Myth and Religion of the North: The Religion of Ancient Scandinavia (1964, reprinted 1975), deals with pre-Christian religious beliefs. Translations of the original sagas and of Old Norse poetry include The Poetic Edda, ed. and trans. by Ursula Dronke, 2 vol. (196997); and Snorri Sturluson, The Prose Edda, trans. from Icelandic by Arthur Gilchrist Brodeur (1916, reissued 1967), and The Heimskringla: A History of the Norse Kings, 3 vol., trans. from Icelandic by Samuel Laing, ed. by Rasmus B. Anderson (196468). The historical development of the Norwegian language is explored in Einar Haugen, Language Conflict and Language Planning: The Case of Modern Norwegian (1966); and Karen A. Larson, Learning Without Lessons: Socialization and Language Change in Norway (1985). The arts are discussed in Janice S. Stewart, The Folk Arts of Norway, 2nd enlarged ed. (1972); Kristian Lange, Norwegian Music, 2nd rev. ed. (1982); Jan Askeland, Norwegian Painting (1971), and Norwegian Printmakers: A Hundred Years of Graphic Arts, trans. from Norwegian (1978); istein Parmann, Norwegian Sculpture (1969); Christian Norberg-Schulz, Modern Norwegian Architecture (1986); and Harald Beyer, A History of Norwegian Literature, trans. and ed. by Einar Haugen (1956, reissued 1979; originally published in Norwegian, 1952). Sverre Mortensen and Per Vogt (eds.), One Hundred Norwegians: An Introduction to Norwegian Culture and Achievement (1955), is a collection of biographies. A main biographical source for history and culture is Edvard Bull et al. (eds.), Norsk biografisk leksikon, 19 vol. (192383). Jan Christensen History Broad surveys of the country's history include T.K. Derry, A Short History of Norway, 2nd ed. (1968, reprinted 1979), and A History of Scandinavia (1979), both good introductions; and Rolf Danielsen et al., Grunntrekk i norsk historie: fra vikingtid til vre dager (1991). Two monumental new standard works are Knut Mykland (ed.), Norges historie, 15 vol. (197680); and Aschehougs Norgeshistorie (199498), lavishly illustrated. Highly recommended is the work by Phillip Pulsiano et al. (eds.), Medieval Scandinavia: An Encyclopedia (1993). A study based on excavations of a Norse settlement in Newfoundland is presented in Anne Stine Ingstad, The Norse Discovery of America, 2 vol. (1985). Pierre Jeannin, L'Europe du Nord-Ouest et du Nord aux XVIIe et XVIIIe sicles, 2nd ed. updated (1987), is a comprehensive history of the area and the period. Social conditions are explored in Michael Drake, Population and Society in Norway, 17351865 (1969). Recommended volumes from the series Handbok i Norges historie are Per Sveaas Andersen, Samlingen av Norge og kristningen av landet 8001130 (1977); Knut Helle, Norge blir en stat 11301319, 2nd ed. (1974); Rolf Fladby, Samfunn i vekst: under fremmed styre, 15361660 (1986); Knut Mykland et al., Norge under eneveldet, 16601720 (1975); and Stle Dyrvik et al., Norge under eneveldet, 17201800 (1976).The 19th and 20th centuries are covered in Tore Pryser, Norsk historie 18001870: fr standssamfunn mot klassesamfunn (1985); Sverre Steen, Det frie Norge, 5 vol. (195162), continued in P egen hnd: Norge etter 1905 (1976), and Frihet og liv er ett: Norge fra 1920rene til 1950 (1977); Jens Arup Seip, Utsikt over Norges historie, 2 vol. (197481), covering the years 181484; and three related works: Arne Bergsgrd, Norsk historie, 18141880 (1964); Jostein Nerbvik, Norsk historie, 18701905, new ed. (1993); and Berge Furre, Norsk historie, 19051990: vre hundrer (1992). Raymond E. Lindgren, Norway-Sweden: Union, Disunion, and Scandinavian Integration (1959, reprinted 1979), examines cooperation among Scandinavian countries in the first half of the 20th century. The war years are studied in Olav Riste, The Neutral Ally: Norway's Relations with Belligerent Powers in the First World War (1965), and London-regjeringa: Norge i krigsalliansen, 19401945, 2nd ed. (1995), on the Norwegian exile government in London. Tim Greve, Haakon VII of Norway, trans. and ed. by T.K. Derry (1983; originally published in Norwegian, 1980), is especially useful for the analysis of Norway's independence and its role in World War II. A survey of the postwar period is found in Franklin D. Scott, Scandinavia, rev. and enlarged ed. (1975); and T.K. Derry, A History of Modern Norway, 18141972 (1973), which focuses on 20th-century industrialization and economy. Comprehensive and excellent is Thomas Pedersen, European Union and the EFTA Countries: Enlargement and Integration (1994). Fredrik Sejersted et al., ES-rett (1995), is recommended as a central work on the legal situation in Norway after the implementation of the EEA rules. Administration and social conditions Norway is a constitutional hereditary monarchy. Its legislative body is the Storting, the 165 members of which are directly elected to four-year terms by universal suffrage for citizens at least 18 years of age. The government, comprising the prime minister and the Statsrd (State Council), is nominally chosen by the monarch with the approval of the Storting. The Storting settles most matters in unicameral plenary sessions. Only when voting on laws is the Storting divided into two houses. One-fourth of the members are chosen to constitute the Lagting, or upper house, while the remaining members constitute the Odelsting, or lower house. Bills must be passed by both houses in succession. In the 1990s more than one-third of the representatives to the Storting were women, the highest proportion of women in a national legislature in the world. Gro Harlem Brundtland became Norway's first woman prime minister in 1981 and was in and out of office for the next 15 years. From 1986 women also comprised about one-third of the Statsrd. Government The constitution of Norway, drafted in 1814 when Norway left the 434-year union with Denmark, was influenced by British political traditions, the constitution of the United States, and French revolutionary ideas. Amendments can be made by a two-thirds majority in the Storting. Unlike many parliamentary forms of legislature, the Storting cannot be dissolved during its four-year term of office (amendments to overturn this restriction have been defeated frequently since 1990). If a majority of the Storting votes against an action advocated by the Statsrd, the minister responsible or the whole Statsrd resigns. In legislative matters the monarch has a suspending right of veto, but since the 91-year union with Sweden was dissolved in 1905 this veto has never been exercised. Norway's political life functions through a multiparty system. Before national elections, held every four years, political parties nominate their candidates at membership meetings in each of Norway's fylker (counties). Each fylke elects a number (determined by the size of its population) of representatives to the Storting, with party representation allotted on the basis of the percentage of the vote received. The Norwegian Labour Party (Det Norske Arbeiderparti; DNA), the dominant party from before World War II until the mid-1960s, advocates a moderate form of socialism. In its many years of governing Norway, however, it nationalized only a few large industrial companies. The Conservative Party, which traditionally has been the major alternative to the DNA, accepts the welfare state and approves of the extensive transfers of income and of government control of the economy. Between 1945 and 1965 the government was formed by the DNA, which won clear majorities in the Storting. After 1965, however, no single party was able to obtain a majority in the legislature, and Norway was governed by a succession of coalitions and minority governments. Other political parties that played important roles during this period include the Christian People's (Democratic) Party, the Centre Party (called the Agrarian Party until 1958), the Socialist Left Party, the Progress Party, and the Liberal (Venstre) Party. The city of Oslo constitutes one of the country's 19 counties. The other counties are divided into rural and urban municipalities, with councils elected every fourth year (two years after the Storting elections). For the country as a whole, the municipal elections tend to mirror the party division of the Storting. The municipal councils elect a board of aldermen and a mayor. Many municipalities also employ councillors for such governmental affairs as finance, schools, social affairs, and housing. Norwegians pay direct taxes to both federal and municipal governments. The counties can levy taxes on the municipalities for purposes such as roads, hospitals, secondary schools, and other joint projects. The county councils comprise delegates from the municipalities, while the county governors are appointed by the Statsrd.