NYAYA

(Sanskrit: Rule, or Method), one of the six orthodox systems (darsana) of Indian philosophy, important for its analysis of logic and epistemology. The major contribution of the Nyaya system is its working out in profound detail the reasoning method of inference (see anumana). Like the other systems, Nyaya is both a philosophy and a religion; its ultimate concern is to bring an end to man's suffering, which results from ignorance of reality. Liberation is brought about through right knowledge. Nyaya is thus concerned with the means of right knowledge. In its metaphysics, Nyaya is allied to the Vaisesika system, and the two schools were often combined from about the 10th century. Its principal text is the Nyaya-sutras, ascribed to Gautama (c. 2nd century BC). The Nyaya systemfrom Gautama through his important early commentator Vatsyayana (c. AD 450) until Udayanacarya (Udayana; 10th century)became qualified as the Old Nyaya (Pracina-Nyaya) in the 11th century when a new school of Nyaya (Navya-Nyaya, or New Nyaya) arose in Bengal. The best known philosopher of the Navya-Nyaya, and the founder of the modern school of Indian logic, was Gangesa (13th century). The Nyaya school holds that there are four valid means of knowledge: perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), and testimony (sabda). Invalid knowledge involves memory, doubt, error, and hypothetical argument. The Nyaya theory of causation defines a cause as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an effect. In its emphasis on sequencean effect does not preexist in its causethe Nyaya theory is at variance with the Samkhya-Yoga and Vedantist views, but it is not unlike modern Western inductive logic in this respect. Three kinds of causes are distinguished: inherent, or material cause (the substance out of which an effect is produced); non-inherent cause (which helps in the production of a cause); and efficient cause (the power that helps the material cause produce the effect). God is not the material cause of the universe, since atoms and souls are also eternal, but is rather the efficient cause.