PANAMA, ISTHMUS OF

Spanish Istmo De Panam, land link extending east-west about 400 miles (640 km) from the border of Costa Rica to the border of Colombia. It connects North and South America and separates the Caribbean Sea (Atlantic Ocean) from the Gulf of Panama (Pacific Ocean). The narrowest part of the Americas (about 30120 miles [50200 km] wide), it embraces the Republic of Panama; its narrowest sections are the isthmuses of Darin (east) and Chiriqu (west). The terrain alternates between mountains, tropical rain forests, and coastal plains. The isthmus was first inhabited by Indians migrating from the Andes and the West Indies. The Spanish explorer Rodrigo de Galvn Bastidas was the first European to visit the area (1501). The following year Christopher Columbus landed on the north coast and named Portobelo (beautiful harbour). During colonial times, the isthmus, crossed by the Cruces Mule Trail, was a source of friction between the Spanish and English. Despite constant attacks by English pirates, it remained in Spanish hands until independence early in the 19th century. Following the California gold rush of 1849, the Transisthmian Railway was constructed, and the towns of Portobelo and Coln experienced a tremendous economic boom. The opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 resulted in a heavy population migration to what was then the Canal Zone. The strategic importance of the isthmus accounts for much of Panama's turbulent history. The economy Nearly three-fourths of the gross domestic product (GDP) is generated by the service sectora greater proportion than in any other Latin American countryand services employ the majority of the workforce. Services have grown mainly because of offshore banking and canal traffic; public administration and other services are also important. Agriculture and fishing account for less than one-tenth of the GDP but nearly one-fifth of the workforce. Prior to the 1990s U.S. forces stationed in Panama supported approximately 5 percent of the GDP. The Panamanian government, recognizing that the U.S. troop withdrawal would remove hundreds of millions of dollars from the national economy, has attempted to compensate by redeveloping formerly U.S.-controlled properties, including prime real estate in Panama City. The government has also promoted ecotourism and the repair of rail and road systems. Resources Clay, limestone, and salt are the leading mineral products, and gold, ferrous sand, and manganese have been mined on a small scale. There are commercially significant but largely unexploited deposits of copper, including the Cerro Colorado find in Chiriqu province. Deposits of bauxite, phosphates, and coal have been minimally exploited, as have various construction materials such as stone and gravel. Petroleum reserves have been found off the Pacific and Caribbean shores. The land Relief A central spine of mountain ranges extends almost the entire length of Panama, dividing the country into Atlantic- and Pacific-facing slopes. The two principal ranges, the Tabasar Mountains (Cordillera Central) in the west and the Cordillera de San Blas in the east, are separated near the centre of the country by a saddle of lower land. This depression (the Panama Canal site) divides the country againroughly into western and eastern halves. Of the four quadrants thus formed, the southwestern has the largest number of settlements; however, the environs of the canal account for most of Panama's population and commerce. The country's highest peak is an inactive volcano, Bar (Chiriqu), which reaches an elevation of 11,401 feet (3,475 metres). Paralleling the principal mountain chains, a lower mountain arc extends along Panama's southern coast. It appears only in well-separated segmentsfor example, on Azuero Peninsula as the Canajagua Massif and in eastern Panama as the Sierra de Jungurud, Sapo Mountains, and the Maj Mountains. The highlands and mountains are made up primarily of igneous (volcanic) rocks. The lowlands include the plains of Panam and Chiriqu provinces, the plains and hills of Coln province, the Chepo and Chucunaque river basins in the east, and the narrow northeastern plains of the Caribbean region. Sedimentary rocks such as slates and shales underlie most of the lowland zones. The Pacific coastline is extended by the Azuero Peninsula and the Gulf of Panama and by numerous headlands and bays, whereas the largest embayment on the Caribbean side is Chiriqu Lagoon. The Pacific coastline is more indented and irregular, and its continental shelf is much wider than that on the Atlantic side. In addition, most of the republic's more than 1,600 islands are off its Pacific coast; they include the Perlas Archipelago (Pearl Islands) and the islands of Taboga, Cbaco, Parida, Jicarn, and Coiba, the largest. The principal archipelagoes off the Caribbean coast are those of Bocas del Toro and San Blas. Drainage and soils Of Panama's many short rivers, those that flow to the Caribbean include the Sixaola, Changuinola, Indio, Cricamola, La Miel, and Chagres. Rivers flowing to the Pacific include the Chiriqu Viejo, Santa Mara, Chepo, Chucunaque, and Tuira. During the rainy season the Tuira is navigable for some 40 miles (60 km) and the Chepo for 20 miles (30 km). Water in the Panama Canal does not flow from coast to coast; rather, it is released from the rain-fed Gatn and Alajuela (Madden) lakes in the central highlands. In effect, the water flows to both coasts simultaneously via the canal's system of locks and dams. For details on the engineering and operation of the waterway, see Panama Canal. Soils are commonly reddish to brown and rich in clay. They vary in fertility, and in many areas crops can be grown continuously only if fertilizers are applied. On poorer soils, a shifting subsistence agriculture is practiced. Under this system small plots are cleared, cropped for a few years, then abandoned until their natural fertility is restoreda practice called roza in Panama. Areas of alluvial soils (which develop from clay, silt, sand, and gravel deposited by streams) are especially fertile but are limited to the lower parts of river valleys. The commercial banana plantations around Puerto Armuelles and in western Bocas del Toro province are mainly on alluvial soils. Some of the soils along the inland edges of coastal mangrove swamps have also proved productive. In some areas, exceptionally fertile soils have developed from volcanic ash. The people Ethnic and linguistic groups In the 16th century, when the Spaniards came to the isthmus, it was occupied by Kuna (Cuna), Guaym, Choc, and other American Indian groups. Mestizos resulted from miscegenation between the Spanish and the Indians. During colonial times people from Africa were brought to the isthmus as slaves, and still other mixed ethnic types developed as the Africans entered the society. During the 19th century, with the construction of the Panama CityColn railroad, new groups arrivedNorth Americans (primarily from the United States), French, and Chinese. Large numbers of West Indians (mainly from British Barbados and Jamaica, as well as Martinique) came to Panama as labourers during the construction of the canal, and additional U.S. nationals, Spaniards, Italians, and Greeks also arrived. Although they are but a small fraction of the total population, Indians are found scattered over a considerable area, often in rainforests on rough terrain. The most numerous of the Indian groups are the Guaym, who live in the western provinces of Chiriqu, Bocas del Toro, and Veraguas. Next in numbers are the Kuna, who are found primarily in the San Blas Archipelago and on the coast nearby. The Choc live mainly in the province of Darin. All these groups preserve their native languages, but many people in each can also speak Spanish. Although most are engaged largely in subsistence agriculture, fishing, and hunting, some Kuna are traders, sailors, or mechanics or work in other occupations. Many Guaym work on the banana plantations of western Panama. Mestizos are the largest population group in Panama. They predominate in the savannas to the west of the canal and in the central provinces of Panam and Coln, where they have intermarried with people of West Indian and African ancestry. People of African descent are settled throughout much of Panamafor example, in the hot lowlands of the Chagres River basin, in the eastern province of Darin, and in the Caribbean lowlands. Peoples from the British West Indies are more-recent arrivals and make up only a small minority. They live primarily in Panama City and in Bocas del Toro province. The United States has influenced both the economy and the culture of Panama. U.S. citizens live primarily in the canal area and in Panama City. Other significant minorities in Panama are Chinese, East Indians, Jews from several areas including the Netherlands Antilles, and Middle Easterners, all of whom play an important role in commerce and industry and who participate in the country's political and professional life. Panama had the Western Hemisphere's first Jewish president, Eric Arturo Delvalle (del Valle), who served in the 1980s. Spanish is the official language of Panama and is spoken by the vast majority of the people. Fewer than one-tenth of the people speak Indian languages. Most Panamanians from West Indian backgrounds speak English, which is also commonly taught in schools. Religion Roman Catholicism is the religion of four-fifths of Panamanians. The number of Protestants grew rapidly in the late 20th century, especially among Pentecostal churches. There is also a long-standing Protestant tradition within the African population of Bocas del Toro province and among Indian groups. Some Panamanians practice Santeria rites, a combination of Catholic and West Indian religious customs. Panama's constitution guarantees freedom of worship.