PERSHING, JOHN J(OSEPH)

born Sept. 13, 1860, Laclede, Mo., U.S. died July 15, 1948, Washington, D.C. byname Black Jack U.S. Army general who commanded the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) in Europe during World War I. Graduating from the U.S. Military Academy at West Point, N.Y., in 1886, Pershing served in several Indian wars, in the Spanish-American War (1898), as brigadier general in the Philippine Islands (1906-13), and as commander of a punitive raid against the Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa (1916). He also was a military instructor at the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, and at West Point. After the United States declared war on Germany (April 1917), President Woodrow Wilson selected Pershing to command the American troops being sent to Europe. In June he submitted a "General Organization Report" recommending an army of 1,000,000 men by 1918 and 3,000,000 by 1919. Though early U.S. planning had not included such a large force, Pershing's recommendations prevailed. Pershing was determined to maintain the integrity of the AEF as an independent army, despite pressure from the Allied high command to use U.S. troops as replacement units in European divisions, many of which were exhausted from the setbacks of 1917. Pershing largely resisted these pressures, although, during the March-June 1918 German offensive threatening Paris, he was finally persuaded to release his troops temporarily to the inter-Allied commander Marshal Ferdinand Foch. Pershing's army never became entirely self-sufficient, but it conducted two significant operations. In September 1918 the AEF assaulted the Saint-Mihiel salient successfully. Then, at Foch's request, later that month Pershing quickly regrouped his forces for the Meuse-Argonne offensive, despite his original plans to advance toward Metz. Though incomplete preparations and inexperience slowed the Meuse-Argonne operations, the inter-Allied offensive in France destroyed German resistance in early October and led to the Armistice the next month. Pershing was criticized for operational and logistic errors, but his creation of the AEF was a remarkable achievement. He returned home with a sound reputation and in 1919 was given the rank of general of the armies of the United States. Pershing's nickname, Black Jack, derived from his service with a black regiment early in his career; it came to signify his stern bearing and rigid discipline. Eschewing politics, Pershing remained in the army and served as chief of staff from 1921 until his retirement three years later. Pershing's memoirs were published as My Experiences in the World War, 2 vol. (1931).