QUR'AN

also spelled Koran (Arabic: Recitation), the sacred scripture of Islam, regarded by Muslims as the infallible Word of God, a perfect transcription of an eternal tablet preserved in Heaven and revealed to the Prophet Muhammad over a period of 20 years. The intermittent revelations to Muhammad were first memorized by followers and used in ritual prayers. Although verses were later written down during the Prophet's lifetime, they were first compiled in their present authoritative form during the reign of the third caliph (deputy or successor to the Prophet). Qur'anic recitation has always been an important aspect of Muslim piety. As the paramount authority for the Muslim community, the Qur'an is the ultimate source and continual inspiration of Islam. Its injunctions have characterized the unique development of Islamic civilization, and its various interpretations have influenced the direction of the multiple trends within this development. The Qur'an consists of 114 chapters (surahs) of unequal length. The earliest surahs of the Meccan period are generally shorter and written in dynamic rhymed prose. The surahs of the later Medinan period are longer and more prosaic in style. With the exception of the first surah, the Fatihah (Opening), the surahs are arranged roughly according to length, with the longer surahs preceding the shorter ones. Consequently, the present arrangement is, for the most part, an inversion of the text's chronological order. The emphases of Qur'anic teachings differ according to the periods of revelation. A single idea is seldom exhaustively discussed in one surah. Thus, a systematic rendering of Qur'anic concepts requires the evaluation of doctrines in terms of both the Qur'an as a whole and the particular historical circumstances in which the Prophet and community were addressed. The early surahs convey an emphatic call to moral and religious obedience in light of the coming Day of Judgment, while the late Medinan surahs provide directives for the creation of a social fabric supportive of the moral life called for by God. Absolute monotheism governs all Qur'anic ideas about God. The imperative to recognize no divinity besides God is reiterated throughout the scriptures. The God who revealed his Word to Muhammad is identified with the God worshipped by both Jews and Christians, though these communities failed to hear and incorporate God's revelation to their prophets. The Qur'an emphasizes God as the absolute creator and sustainer of an ordered universe, an order that reflects His infinite power, wisdom, and authority. Although God is completely unlike His creation, He is also recognized as omnipresent, nearer to man than his jugular vein (50:16). Through His revealed Word, God has provided guidance for mankind, and by the standard of that guidance He will judge mankind on the Day of Reckoning. Emphasis on the stern justice of God is tempered by recurrent references to His mercy and compassion. The Qur'an describes man both as God's viceregent within the created order as well as an ignorant and foolhardy creature. This paradox exemplifies the moral tension characterizing the human situation. While man is endowed with the greatest potential of any created being, he alone is susceptible to evil. The Qur'an provides no basis for a doctrine of original sin or redemption; rather, it states explicitly that humanity is responsible, both individually and collectively, for its action. Though numerous passages refer to man's freedom to accept or reject the Qur'anic teachings, other verses speak of God's control of history in terms more akin to predestination. This ambiguity has given rise to a variety of Muslim interpretations of human nature and destiny. The moral principles to which man is responsible, however, are treated in the Qur' an with utmost clarity. The scripture demands absolute submission (islam) to God and his word. This submission requires the implementation of moral principles both individually and within the sociopolitical order. With the end of history, each man will face judgment and account for the deeds unveiled before him. The Qur'an provides detailed accounts of the consequences of God's judgment: the joys of the gardens of Paradise and the punishment and terror of Hell. Although the Qur'an is the primary source of Islamic law, it does not enumerate the detailed requirements of that law. Similarly, the scriptures provide merely fragmentary directives for the basic duties of the faithful, referred to as the Five Pillars of Islam. Correct interpretation of the Qur'an has been a central concern of all schools of Islamic thought. A special branch of learning, called tafsir, deals exclusively with Qur'anic exegesis. Commentators use tafsir to study Qur'anic texts in terms of auxiliary branches of learning such as Arabic grammar, lexicography, and the Prophetic tradition. This development of exegesis, however, did not forestall doctrinal disputes; instead, various theological and legal schools used this discipline to support their respective systems of thought. The Qur'an, verbally received by Muhammad in Arabic, is regarded as immutable in both form and content, and its translation has traditionally been forbidden. Muslims throughout the world thus continue to recite its surahs in Arabic, although they may not understand the language. Such translations as have been made are viewed as paraphrases to facilitate understanding of the actual scripture. A.J. Arberry's The Koran Interpreted (1955) is generally recognized as the superior English translation. also spelled Koran (Arabic: Recitation) holy book of Islam, regarded by believers as the true word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. In its written form it is accepted as the earthly reproduction of an uncreated and eternal heavenly original, according to the general view referred to in the Qur'an itself as the well-preserved tablet (al-lawh al-mahfuz; Qur'an 75:22). The word qur'an is derived from the verb qara'a to read, to recite, but there is probably also some connection with Syriac qeryana, reading, used for the scriptural lessons in the Syrian Church. In the Qur'an itself the word is not used with reference to the book as a whole but only as a term for separate revelations or for the divine revelation in general. The Qur'an is held in high esteem as the ultimate authority in all matters legal and religious and is generally regarded as infallible in all respects. Its Arabic language is thought to be unsurpassed in purity and beauty and to represent the highest ideal of style. To imitate the style of the Qur'an is a sacrilege. Additional reading The basic work is T. Nldeke, Geschichte des Qorans (1860, 2nd ed. by Friedrich Schwally 190938, reprinted 1970). Less comprehensive but more modern are Richard Bell, Introduction to the Qur'an, new ed., rev. and enl. by W. Montgomery Watt (1970); and Rgis Blachre, Introduction au Coran, 2nd ed. (1977). The history of Qur'anic interpretation is set forth in Ignc Goldziher, Die Richtungen der islamischen Koranauslegung (1920, reprinted 1970). It should be supplemented by Johannes M.S. Baljon, Modern Muslim Koran Interpretation, 18801960 (1961, reprinted 1968). Arthur Jeffery, The Qur'an as Scripture (1952, reprinted 1980), deals with the Qur'an's view of its own function. Kenneth Cragg, The Event of the Qur'an (1971), deals with the meaning of the Qur'an in Islamic life. English translations include The Meaning of the Glorious Qur'an: Text and Explanatory Translation, by Muhammad M. Pickthall (1938, reissued 1977); The Koran Interpreted by Arthur J. Arberry (1964), which is well known for its literary qualities; and Helmut Gtje, The Qur'an and Its Exegesis: Selected Texts with Classical and Modern Muslim Interpretations, trans. and ed. by Alford T. Welch (1977).