REGULATORY AGENCY

independent governmental commission established by legislative act in order to set standards in a specific field of activity, or operations, in the private sector of the economy and to then enforce those standards. Regulatory agencies function outside executive supervision. Because the regulations that they adopt have the force of law, part of these agencies' function is essentially legislative; but because they may also conduct hearings and pass judgments concerning adherence to their regulations, they also exercise a judicial functionoften carried out before a quasi-judicial official called an administrative law judge, who is not part of the court system. Regulatory agencies have become popular means of promoting fair trade and consumer protection as problems of commerce and trade have become more complex, particularly in the 20th century. The idea of the regulatory agency was first advanced in the United States, and it has been largely an American institution. The first agency was the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), established by Congress in 1887 to regulate the railroads (and, later, motor carriers, inland waterways, and oil companies). It was abolished in 1996 but long served as the prototype of such an agency. The ICC was organized in the belief that a commission of specialists would know more about the railroads and their unique problems than Congress would, that a permanent commission could provide a more unbroken line of policy than could an elected body, and that it could combine the two functions of legislative and judicial that are necessary for effective regulation. Originally, the ICC was to serve only as an advisory body to Congress and the courts, but it was soon granted these powers itself. Also, an independent commission could be impartial and nonpartisan, a necessity for equitable regulation. The ICC was the first step taken to regulate an entire class of industries, rather than taking each on a case-by-case basis, as had been previously done. The assertion of governmental control in other industries led to the creation of many other regulatory agencies modeled upon the ICC, chief among these being the Federal Trade Commission (FTC, 1914), Federal Communications Commission (FCC, 1934), and Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC, 1934). In addition, regulatory powers were conferred upon the ordinary executive departments; the Department of Agriculture, for example, was given such powers under the Stockyards and Packers Act (1938). Much of President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal program of the 1930s was carried out through administrative regulation. During the same period a comparable development took place in state and municipal government. Other, more recent agencies include the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC, 1964), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1970), Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA, 1971), Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC, 1972), and Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC, 1975). The functions of the FTC illustrate those of regulatory agencies in general. It oversees the packaging, labeling, and advertising of consumer goods. It applies broadly stated legislative policies to concrete cases of trade competition by a procedure patterned after that of the courts. It grants licenses to those seeking to engage in export trade. It also regulates collection and circulation of credit information. Regulatory agencies use a commission system of administration, and their terms of office are fixed and often very long. Federal Reserve Board members, for instance, serve for 14 years. Regulatory agency commissions are appointed by the president, but their terms are staggered, so that no one president is able to drastically change the nature of the agency by the appointments he might make. In almost all other countries outside the United States, the role of regulatory agencies is taken by the regular administrative departments of government and, in the case of utilities and public transportation, often by means of state ownership.