SEAWATER

water that makes up the oceans and seas, covering more than 70 percent of the Earth's surface. Seawater is a complex mixture of 96.5 percent water, 2.5 percent salts, and smaller amounts of other substances, including dissolved inorganic and organic materials, particulates, and a few atmospheric gases. The six most abundant ions of seawater are chloride (Cl-), sodium (Na+), sulfate (SO24-), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+), and potassium (K+). By weight these ions make up about 99 percent of all sea salts. The amount of these salts in a volume of seawater varies because of the addition or removal of water locally (e.g., through precipitation and evaporation). The salt content in seawater is indicated by salinity (S), which is defined as the amount of salt in grams dissolved in one kilogram of seawater and expressed in parts per thousand. Salinities in the open ocean have been observed to range from about 34 to 37 parts per thousand. Inorganic carbon, bromide, boron, strontium, and fluoride constitute the other major dissolved substances of seawater. Of the many minor dissolved chemical constituents, inorganic phosphorus and inorganic nitrogen are among the most notable, since they are important for the growth of organisms that inhabit the oceans and seas. Seawater also contains various dissolved atmospheric gases, chiefly nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide. Some other components of seawater are dissolved organic substances, such as carbohydrates and amino acids, and organic-rich particulates. These materials originate primarily in the upper 100 m (300 feet) of the ocean, where dissolved inorganic carbon is photosynthetically transformed into organic matter. The composition of seawater is affected by many different chemical and physical transport mechanisms. Dissolved substances and particulates are, for example, added to the oceans by rivers. Particulates may be transported by the wind to mid-ocean regions far from their continental source areas. Chemical substances are also added to deep ocean waters by hydrothermal solutions that have circulated through the Earth's crust beneath the ocean floor. Many of the characteristics of seawater correspond to those of water in general, owing to their common chemical and physical properties. For example, the molecular structure of seawater, like that of fresh water, favours the formation of bonds among molecules. Some of the distinctive qualities of seawater are attributable to its salt content. The viscosity (i.e., internal resistance to flow) of seawater, for example, is higher than that of fresh water because of its higher salinity. The density of seawater also is higher for the same reason. Seawater's freezing point is lower than that of pure water and its boiling point is higher. Seawater constitutes a rich source of various commercially important chemical elements. Much of the world's magnesium is recovered from seawater, as are large quantities of bromine. In certain parts of the world, sodium chloride (table salt) is still obtained by evaporating seawater. In addition, water from the sea, when desalted, can furnish a limitless supply of drinking water. Many large desalination plants have been built in dry areas along seacoasts in the Middle East and elsewhere to relieve shortages of fresh water.