STADHOLDER

also spelled Stadtholder, Dutch Stadhouder, provincial executive officer in the Low Countries, or Netherlands, from the 15th through the 18th century. The office acquired extensive powers in the United Provinces of the Netherlands (Dutch Republic). Introduced by the ruling Burgundian dukes in the 15th century and continued unchanged by the succeeding Habsburg rulers, the stadholderates were at first occupied by noblemen appointed by the central government. The duties of the stadholder included presiding over the provincial states (assemblies), control and command of provincial armies, and appointment to certain offices. During the revolt of the Netherlands against the Spanish Habsburgs (from 1568), the stadholders came to be elected, first by the States General (q.v.) and then by the individual provincial states. This procedure remained permanent for the seven northern provinces that won their independence from Spain and formed the Dutch Republic; in the provinces that reverted to Spanish rule, the stadholders again became royal appointees and declined in importance. The offices of the Dutch stadholders soon became exclusively associated with the house of Orange-Nassau: while William I, the leader of the revolt, had been stadholder of four provinces, his son was elected to the office in five provinces and a Nassau cousin in the remaining two; this pattern endured until 1747, when a single Orange prince was elected to all of the offices. During the republic's existence the Orange stadholders were in almost continual conflict with the states of the dominant province of Holland, competing for leadership of the country. While theoretically subordinate to the states, the stadholder, in times of internal or foreign crisis and with the support of the lesser provinces and the lower classes, was able to replace the Holland leaders with his own allies and thus wield near-supreme power. In this fashion the stadholder gained preponderance in 161950, 16721702, and 174795. In 1747, after the election of Prince William IV to all of the stadholderates, the offices were made hereditary. The republic experienced two stadholderless periods (165072 and 170247) when, with the deaths of the domineering princes of Orange, the offices in the five leading provinces were left vacant, while the Holland oligarchs controlled the destiny of the republic. The stadholderate disappeared in 1795 along with the old republic. The last stadholder fled to England as invading French revolutionary armies and their Dutch sympathizers brought the republic to an end.