THEOSOPHY

religious philosophy with mystical concerns that can be traced to the ancient world but that has been of catalytic significance in religious thought in the 19th and 20th centuries. The term theosophy is derived from the Greek theos, god, and sophia, wisdom, and is generally translated as divine wisdom. All theosophical speculation has as its foundation the mystical premise that God must be experienced directly in order to be known at all. In modern times theosophy has been widely identified with the doctrines promoted by religious mystic Helena Blavatsky through the Theosophical Society. The term may also be used in a more general sense to refer to a certain strain of mystical thought found in such thinkers as the ancient Greek philosophers Pythagoras and Plato, the Gnostic teachers Simon Magus and Valentinus, the Neoplatonist philosophers Plotinus and Proclus, the medieval northern European mystics Meister Eckehart and Nicholas of Cusa, the Renaissance speculative mystics Paracelsus and Giordano Bruno, the German philosophical mystic Jakob Bhme, and the German Romantic philosopher Friedrich Schelling. But the richest and most profound source of theosophical views has been Indian thought, where they may be traced from the earliest scriptural Vedas through the Upanishads and the Bhagavadgita (Song of the Lord) to modern times. Elements of theosophy may also be found in the other Asian religions, especially in Islamic Sufism, Buddhism, and Taoism. Despite its diversity, theosophical speculation reveals certain common characteristics. The first of these is an emphasis on mystical experience. Whether ancient or modern, theosophical writers have agreed that a deeper spiritual reality exists and that direct contact may be established with that reality through intuition, meditation, revelation, or some other state transcending normal human consciousness. A second characteristic is an emphasis on esoteric doctrine. A distinction between an inner, or esoteric, teaching and an outer, or exoteric, teaching is commonly accepted, and much attention is devoted to deciphering the meaning concealed in sacred texts. Modern theosophists claim that all the world religions, including Christianity, contain such an inner teaching. A third characteristic is an interest in occult phenomena. Most theosophical speculation reveals a fascination with supernatural or other extraordinary occurrences and with the achievement of higher psychic and spiritual powers. It is held that knowledge of the divine wisdom gives access to the mysteries of nature and humankind's deeper being. A fourth characteristic is a preference for monismthe view that reality is constituted of one principle, such as mind or spirit. Despite a recognition of basic distinctions between the exoteric and esoteric, between the phenomenal world and a higher spiritual reality, and between the human and the divine, which suggests dualism, most theosophically inclined writers have affirmed an underlying, all-encompassing unity that subsumes all differentiation. Since the 19th century theosophy has been identified with the Theosophical Society founded in 1875 in New York City by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott. A woman of noble Russian descent, Blavatsky had immigrated to the United States in 1873 after many years of travel and occultist investigations throughout Europe and the Middle East. Olcott, an American lawyer, newspaperman, and student of spiritualism, soon fell under her sway. The two moved to India in 1878, eventually establishing their base of operations at Adyar, near Madras, which still serves as the international headquarters for the Theosophical Society. Branch societies were established throughout much of India and in the major cities of Europe. Blavatsky meanwhile authored a series of often obscure works that have since been accepted as classic expositions of theosophical doctrine; best known are her two-volume Isis Unveiled, published in 1877, and The Secret Doctrine, also in two volumes, published in 1888. The Theosophical Society affirms the following objectives: (1) to form a nucleus of the universal brotherhood of humanity, without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste, or colour; (2) to encourage the study of comparative religion, philosophy, and science; and (3) to investigate unexplained laws of nature and the powers latent in human beings. The society insists that it is not offering a new system of thought but merely underscoring certain universal concepts of God, nature, and humanity that have been known to wise men in all ages and that may be found in the teachings of all the great religions. One of the society's most controversial claims concerns the existence of a brotherhood of Great Masters, or Adepts, who, it is asserted, have perfected themselves and are directing the spiritual evolution of humanity. The Theosophical Society almost expired in the United States in the years following Blavatsky and Olcott's removal to India. During the 1880s and '90s it was revived by William Q. Judge (185196), an Irish-born American mystic, who succeeded in making the American section the most active unit in the international movement. The American wing, however, was to be repeatedly disrupted by schisms in later years. Following Blavatsky's death in 1891, tensions rapidly escalated between Judge and Olcott, culminating in the secession of the American movement from Indian control in 1895. After Judge's death in 1896, Katherine Tingley (18471929) succeeded to the headship of the American section; at her instigation the American headquarters was transferred to Point Loma in California, and the focus of the movement's work was recast along more practical lines. In 195051 the headquarters was moved to Pasadena, Calif. A new schism developed, with still a third group claiming to represent theosophy in America. Such sectarianism has declined in recent years. Though Judge came to dominate the American work after 1891, Olcott maintained an uneasy control over the international movement. Upon his death in 1907, he was succeeded as president in India by the charismatic Englishwoman Annie Besant (18471933), whose leadership gave Indians a sense of pride in that they were exporting ideas of importance to the West. Besant's many books still provide one of the best expositions of theosophical belief. In 1911 she proclaimed Jiddu Krishnamurti (18951986), an obscure Indian youth, as the vehicle of a coming World Teacher, an act that led to much controversy. Krishnamurti subsequently renounced any claims to being a World Teacher and began a career of writing and teaching. Beginning in the 1920s he spent much time in the United States and Europe, where his books have enjoyed considerable popularity. He founded several schools and lectured before large audiences in North America, Europe, and India. The influence of the Theosophical Society has been rather significant, however, despite its small following. The movement has been a catalytic force in the 20th-century Asian revival of Buddhism and Hinduism and a pioneering agency in the promotion of greater Western acquaintance with Eastern thought. In the United States it has influenced a whole series of religious movements, including the I Am movement, Rosicrucianism, the Liberal Catholic Church, Psychiana, Unity, and sections of the New Thought movement. Additional reading