UNITED NATIONS

(UN) international organization established by charter on Oct. 24, 1945, with the purposes of maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations on the principle of equal rights and self-determination, and encouraging international cooperation in solving international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems. The term United Nations was originally used during World War II to denote those countries that were allied against the Axis powers (Germany, Japan, and Italy). A conference at Dumbarton Oaks, an estate in Washington, D.C., was the earliest attempt to permanently establish this United Nations. Representatives of the Big Four (United Kingdom, United States, U.S.S.R., and China) met there from Aug. 21 to Oct. 7, 1944, to draft some preliminary proposals, which were later discussed and more clearly outlined at the Yalta Conference in February 1945 by the Allied war leaders Winston Churchill, Joseph Stalin, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. The proposals, supplemented by these three leaders' decisions, formed the basis of negotiations at the United Nations Conference on International Organization, held in San Francisco two months later; the resultant Charter of the United Nations was signed in June and came into force on Oct. 24, 1945. The United Nations' headquarters is now located at the UN Building in New York City. Six principal organs of the United Nations were established. The General Assembly (q.v.) includes representatives of all members of the UN. A nation may send up to five representatives but still has only one vote. Decisions are reached either by majority or by two-thirds vote, depending upon the subject matter. The General Assembly works through the committee system and receives reports from the various councils. It performs such functions as supervising trust agreements, budgetary matters, and financial assessments. The assembly elects judges to the International Court of Justice and plays an important role in amending the UN's charter and proposing conferences. It is convened yearly or by special session when necessary. The Security Council (q.v.) consists of 5 permanent membersUnited States, Russia (until 1991, the U.S.S.R.), United Kingdom, France, and Chinaand 10 nonpermanent members (6 until 1965). The council functions continuously and is mainly concerned with the maintenance of international security. The presidency is rotated among members each month. Nonpermanent members are chosen from groups and regions in the most equitable fashion possible. Nine votes (including those of all five permanent members) are sufficient to carry a Security Council decision, but any permanent member may exercise a veto over any substantive proposal. The Economic and Social Council (q.v.) is mainly concerned with the management of the UN's social, economic, cultural, and humanitarian activities. Convening at least twice yearly, this council conducts studies and proposes suggestions for economic and social improvements. The council oversees many commissions, including four major ones in Europe, Asia, Latin America, and Africa. The International Court of Justice (q.v.), also known as the World Court, is located in The Hague. It is the main judicial branch of the UN and consists of 15 judges elected for nine-year terms by both the General Assembly and the Security Council. Each judge must come from a different country. The court settles disputes and hands down decisions and opinions to the General Assembly and the Security Council. The Secretariat (q.v.) is the administrative department of the UN, headed by the secretary-general, who functions in a position of political importance and is appointed for a five-year term by both the General Assembly and the Security Council. The United Nations attempts to promote harmonious interaction among the countries of the world. The UN has sometimes used peacekeeping forces to halt fighting in or between various countries. (The UN peacekeeping forces were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1988.) Other programs and agencies under the UN's supervision include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank); International Monetary Fund (IMF); International Labour Organisation (ILO; recipient of the 1969 Nobel Peace Prize); Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO); World Health Organization (WHO); United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO); and United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF; recipient of the 1965 Nobel Peace Prize). UN, international organization established by charter on Oct. 24, 1945. It was the second multi-purpose international organization established in the 20th century that was worldwide in scope and membership, the first such organization being the League of Nations, established by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. The ultimate goals of the United Nations, according to its Charter, are to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, . . . to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, . . . to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be maintained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom. Its primary purpose, therefore, is to maintain international peace and security. Other important objectives listed in Chapter 1 of the Charter include developing friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principles of equal rights and self-determination of peoples; achieving worldwide cooperation to solve international economic, social, cultural, and humanitarian problems; respecting and promoting human rights; and serving as a centre where nations can coordinate their actions and activities toward these various ends. The United Nations maintains its headquarters in New York City. It also has offices in Geneva and Vienna and operates field stations in other cities around the world. The United Nations (UN) became the successor to the League of Nations and absorbed much of the latter's administrative and physical apparatus when it was disbanded in 1946. The United Nations formed a continuum with the League in general purpose, structure, and functions; many of the United Nations' principal organs and related agencies were adopted from similar structures established earlier in the century. In some respects, however, the United Nations constituted a very different organization from the League, especially with regard to the objective of maintaining international peace and security. Differences with the League were due to changes incorporated into the UN's decision-making apparatus and to changes in the nature of international relations. Cold War tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union (until its dissolution in 199192) deeply affected the security functions of the United Nations during its first 45 years, while extensive post-World War II decolonization in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East increased the volume and nature of political, economic, and social issues that confronted the organization. Finally, the end of the Cold War in 1990 brought renewed attention and appeals to the United Nations, posing challenges to established practices and functions, especially in the areas of conflict resolution and humanitarian assistance, in the midst of an increasingly volatile geopolitical climate. Cecelia M. Lynch Additional reading A classic treatment of the evolution of international organization is Inis L. Claude, Jr., Swords into Plowshares: The Problems and Progress of International Organization, 4th ed. (1971, reissued 1984). Comprehensive overviews of the tasks and functioning of the UN can be found in Evan Luard, The United Nations: How It Works and What It Does (1979, reissued 1985); Peter R. Baehr and Leon Gordenker, The United Nations in the 1990s (1992); and Amos Yoder, The Evolution of the United Nations System, 2nd ed. (1993). The relationship between the United Nations and other international organizations on particular issues is addressed in Harold K. Jacobson, Networks of Interdependence: International Organizations and the Global Political System, 2nd ed. (1984); for the economic arena in particular, see Joan Edelman Spero, The Politics of International Economic Relations, 4th ed. (1990). Brian Urquhart, A Life in Peace and War (1987), represents a diplomat's personal history of involvement in the organization. United Nations Association Of The United States Of America, A Global Agenda (annual), contains information on the issues before the current General Assembly. Contemporary information can also be found in several UN publications, including Yearbook of the United Nations; UN Chronicle (monthly); and Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization (annual). J. Martin Rochester, Waiting for the Millenium: The United Nations and the Future of World Order (1993), discusses the tasks and issues facing the UN in the 1990s. Cecelia M. Lynch