VOCAL MUSIC

any of the genres for solo voice and voices in combination, with or without instrumental accompaniment. It includes monophonic music (having a single line of melody) and polyphonic music (consisting of more than one simultaneous melody). This article deals with Western art music preserved in staff notation, either for a single solo voice or for voices in unison, and briefly discusses the differences between Western and non-Western traditions. It excludes the complex forms of opera, oratorio, cantata, mass, and requiem, in which solo singing is frequently combined with choral music. The earliest written examples date from the 10th century, prior to which music was transmitted principally by oral tradition. Additional reading For a general survey of song literature, see Denis Stevens (ed.), A History of Song (1960); and Song, in Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., vol. 7 (1954); for discussions of early chants and songs to 1640, with bibliographies and editions: The New Oxford History of Music, vol. 24 (195468); for problems in text setting: the introductions to An Elizabethan Song Book, ed. by Noah Greenberg, W.H. Auden, and Chester Kallman (1955); The Ring of Words: An Anthology of Song Texts, ed. by Philip L. Miller (1963); and The Penguin Book of Lieder, ed. by S.S. Prawer (1964); also Archibald T. Davison, Words and Music (1954); Vincent Duckles and Franklin B. Zimmerman, Words to Music (1967); Northrop Frye (ed.), Sound and Poetry (1957), esp. ch. 1, Words into Music: The Composer's Approach to the Text, by Edward T. Cone; and Jack Stein, Was Goethe Wrong About the Nineteenth-Century Lied? PMLA, 77:232239 (1962). For a discussion of the concert aria, see Paul Hamburger, The Concert Arias, in The Mozart Companion, ed. by H.C. Robbins Landon and Donald Mitchell (1956). Manfred F. Bukofzer, Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Music (1950) and Music in the Baroque Era (1947), are both well-established classics, the first volume being of particular importance since it discusses the beginnings of choral music. Alfred Einstein, The Italian Madrigal, 3 vol. (1949, reprinted 1971), is a detailed account of the entire history of the Italian madrigal. The third volume contains hitherto unpublished compositions, Edmund H. Fellowes, English Cathedral Music from Edward VI to Edward VII, 2nd ed. rev. (1945), and The English Madrigal Composers, 2nd ed. (1948), are regarded as classics and are well suited to the general reader as well as to the professional musician. Frank L. Harrison, Music in Medieval Britain (1958), is the most thorough account of church music in Britain from the earliest times up to the middle of the 16th century. Peter Le Huray, Music and the Reformation in England, 15491660 (1967), provides especially good coverage for this period. Gustave Reese, Music in the Renaissance, rev. ed. (1959), is the finest single-volume study of music from the time of Dufay up to that of Byrd. Denis W. Stevens, Tudor Church Music (1961), is a study of forms and styles in 16th-century church music. See also Nicholas Temperley, The Music of the English Parish Church, 2 vol. (1979); and Stephen Daw, The Music of Johann Sebastian Bach, the Choral Works (1981).