AQUATIC LOCOMOTION

in animals, movement through water either by swimming or by progression in contact with the substrate (i.e., the bottom or other surfaces). Free-swimming locomotion is found in animals ranging from protozoans to whales. For effective swimming the animal controls its buoyancy and has a propulsion system able to compete with the resistance of water movements. Many invertebrates, especially mollusks, propel themselves by water jets; others use undulatory movements of their soft parts. The most widespread mechanism, however, is some means (e.g., a paddle) of physically pressing against the water. This may take the form of anguilliform (undulatory) movements in eellike fishes; using the forelimbs as in turtles and penguins, hind limbs as in frogs and many diving birds, or all four limbs as in bears and most other terrestrial mammals. Highly evolved swimmers, such as whales and bony fishes, have the thrust concentrated in the tail and have reduced limbs, which are folded against the body in fast swimming. Many animals, principally invertebrates and certain fishes, achieve locomotion by contact with the substrate. In fast-moving or turbulent water the animal usually has one or more adhesive disks for attachment to the substrate. In calmer water animals such as lobsters usually walk on the bottom.