ARMENIAN LITERATURE

body of writings in the Armenian language. There is evidence that a pagan oral literature existed in Armenia before the invention of the Armenian alphabet in the 5th century AD, but, owing to the zeal of the early Christian priests, little of this was preserved. For about a century after their conversion to Christianity (c. 300), the Armenians had to rely on Greek and Syriac versions of the Bible and other religious books. These languages were unintelligible to the common people, and to remedy this Mesrop Mashtots invented the Armenian alphabet (c. 401). The catholicos Isaac (Sahak) the Great and Mesrop formed a school of translators who were reputedly sent to Edessa and to Constantinople to procure and translate Syriac and Greek copies of important works into Armenian. Much of the literary activity of the 5th century (the golden age of Armenian literature) was devoted to such translations. Original works, however, were not wanting, such as the histories of Eghishe and Ghazar of Pharp. The masterpiece of classical Armenian writing is the Refutation of the Sects by Eznik Koghbatsi. This was a polemical work, composed partly from Greek sources, in defense of orthodox Christian belief againstand thereby providing valuable information aboutpagan Armenian superstitions, Iranian dualism, Greek philosophy, and the Marcionite heresy. Its pure classical style is unsurpassed in Armenian literature. The work of translating such authors as Saints John Chrysostom and Cyril of Alexandria continued in the 6th8th century. The so-called Hellenistic (Yunaban) school produced excessively slavish translations from Greek grammatical, theological, and philosophical works, including those of Plato, Aristotle, and Philo of Alexandria. In the 10th and 11th centuries, which witnessed the maturity of the independent Bagratid kingdom of Armenia, the Artsruni kingdom of Vaspurakan, and the kingdom of Siuniq, Armenian literature, art, and architecture flourished more freely than at any time since the 5th century. The principal literary figure of the 10th century was St. Gregory Narekatzi, the first great Armenian poet, renowned for his mystic poems and hymns as well as for such prose works as the Commentary on the Song of Songs. Earlier in the same century, Thomas (Thovma) Artsruni wrote a History of the House of Artsruni, which, in spite of its family bias, is the chief source of information on the history of Armenia down to 936; an anonymous writer continued the work to 1121. The History of Armenia by the catholicos John VI Draskhanakertzi is of great value for its account of Arab relations with Armenia, for the author was himself an important participant in the later events he describes. At the turn of the 10th to the 11th century, Bishop Ukhtanes wrote a History of Armenia and a History of the Schism Between the Georgians and Armenians. The beginning of the 11th century saw the completion of the reliable and well-written Universal History of Stephanos Asoghik. The History of Armenia by Aristakes Lastivertzi, relating the fall of the Bagratid kingdom (1045), the destruction of Ani (1064), and the victories of the Seljuq Turks, is almost as much a prose elegy as a history. After the political collapse of Greater Armenia (c. 1100) and the consequent shift southward of the cultural centre to Little, or Cilician, Armenia, the literature split into a western and an eastern branch. In both branches authors began to write in the spoken as well as the classical language. The Mamluk invasion of 1375 and the invasion by Timur (Tamerlane) in 1385 ushered in a long period of cultural and literary decline. There were signs in the 17th century that the Armenians were emerging from the cultural decline of the preceding centuries. The deeds of Turkish and Persian overlords figured prominently in histories by Araqel of Tabriz and Zaqaria the Deacon, but there was some contact with Western scholars and works in Latin. Oskan of Erevan (born in 1614 in the newly founded trading colony of New Julfa, Esfahan) collaborated with the Dominican Pirandelli and printed the first Armenian Bible in Amsterdam in 1666. From the 13th century, imaginative writing had been represented by a succession of popular troubadours, the most famous of these being Nahapet Kuchak (16th century), one of the rare Armenian poets to sing of physical love; Hovnatan Naghash (16611722); and in the following century, most famous of all, Aruthin Sayadian, called Sayat-Nova. The 18th century witnessed an Armenian cultural and intellectual renaissance, and, by the middle of the 19th century, the time was ripe for the development of a modern Armenian literature. The Armenian language, however, was in a chaotic state, and the question of which form should serve as the vehicle for new ideas led to controversies, both in Turkish and Russian Armenia, between champions of the old classical language and those of the modern spoken languages. Eventually the latter prevailed, with the result that from that point on the eastern literature was written in a modified form of the Yerevan dialect (rusahayeren) and that of the west in a modified form of the dialect of Istanbul (dachgahayeren). For their models, and for many of their ideals, Armenian writers looked to Europe. Among western authors, Hakob Paronian and Ervand Otian were outstanding satirical novelists, and Grigor Zohrab wrote realistic short stories; the theatre was best represented by Paronian, whose comedies (as The Dowry, Master Balthazar, The Oriental Dentist) still remain popular. The novel, weak in western Armenian literature, was strongly represented in Russian Armenia, where it became a vehicle for Armenian moral, social, and political aspirations. Khachatur Abovean, the father of modern Armenian literature, wrote Wounds of Armenia in 1841. The most celebrated Armenian novelist was Hakob Meliq-Hakobian, or Raffi. Among eastern poets, Hovhannes Thumanian wrote lyric and narrative poems; and his masterpiece, a short epic, Anush, full of songs that have become traditional, was early adapted as an opera. The most outstanding Armenian dramatist was Gabriel Sundukian, whose comedies (Hullabaloo [also called Khatabala], Pepo, The Broken Hearth) portrayed the contemporary Armenian society of T'bilisi, in whose dialect most of them were written. The rapid decline of Istanbul as the principal western Armenian literary centre (after the Armenian massacres of 191516) brought about a new period of decline in Armenian literature, although Armenians scattered abroad continued to write in Paris, Beirut, and Boston. Some Turkish Armenians fled to the east, where they enjoyed a certain degree of autonomy and where, between 1936 and 1991, national literature was encouraged but controlled by the Soviet state.