BAGHDAD

also spelled Bagdad, largest city and capital of Iraq and one of the largest cities in the Middle East. Located on the Tigris River near the centre of Iraq, about 330 miles (530 kilometres) from the head of the Persian Gulf, Baghdad is famous as the capital of the 'Abbasid caliphs and the setting of many of the stories in The Thousand and One Nights; in addition, it was the foremost city of ancient Mesopotamia, one of the cradles of human civilization. Modern Baghdad exhibits marked contrasts in architecture and life-styles, combining Oriental bazaars, shrines, and mosques with riverfront cafs, Western-style luxury hotels, and modern high-rise apartments. With almost a third of the country's population, Baghdad is the centre of Iraq's political, economic, and cultural life. During the 1991 Persian Gulf war, Baghdad was extensively bombed by a military coalition consisting of various Arab and Western countries and dominated by the United States. The extent of property damage, the number of civilian casualties, and the social and economic effects on Baghdad's population were not yet clear in the months following cessation of the air raids. Thus, the information discussed below reflects the circumstances in Baghdad prior to the Persian Gulf war. also spelled Bagdad, largest city and capital of modern Iraq. Located on the banks of the Tigris River in central Iraq, about 330 miles (530 km) northwest of the Persian Gulf and at the intersection of historic trade routes, Baghdad was the foremost city of ancient Mesopotamia. Baghdad is at the centre of a broad alluvial plain at the nearest approach of the Tigris to the Euphrates. Summers are dry and intensely hot, with prevailing northwesterly winds, known as shamals, bringing some relief, but often dust storms as well. Winters are mild. Iraq's oil wealth is reflected in Baghdad's vigorous economic life. The import and manufacture, as well as distribution, of capital and consumer goods are important. Most Iraqi industries are located near the city; products include leather goods, furniture and wood products, chemicals, electrical equipment, textiles and clothing, bricks, cement, tobacco, and processed food and beverages. The country's financial services are also centred there. Modernization has dramatically changed the physical character of Baghdad, although many historic buildings, cafs, and bazaars have been spared. Control of Tigris flooding has permitted the outward expansion of the city, which the government has tried to curb, resulting in the appearance of high-rise apartment buildings. The new city plan is circular in shape, encompassing both banks of the river; bridges link the city with large suburbs to the west and north. Surviving 13th-century architecture includes the 'Abbasid Palace and the Mustansiriyah School (an Islamic law college built by the caliph al-Mustansir in 1234). Many mosques and minarets have also remained through the centuries, and the royal mausoleum of King Faysal I, founder of the former monarchy, is a notable monument. Much of the cultural life centres on the Sunnite and Shi'ite sects of Islam. The University of Baghdad (1957) and several historical and ethnographic museums are located in the city. Libraries include the al-Awqaf (1928), with collections of Islamic-Arabic history and literature, and the Central Library of the University of Baghdad. The three major lines of the state-owned railway meet in Baghdad, and the city is linked to Europe by a line that runs across Syria to Istanbul. Highways link the capital to other major Iraqi cities and to Damascus. The city has an international airport. Metropolitan area 1,992 square miles (5,159 square km). Pop. (1985 est.) 4,649,000. Additional reading Guy Le Strange, Baghdad During the Abbasid Caliphate (1900, reprinted 1983), remains the standard work on the city's history to 1258. Gaston Wiet, Baghdad: Metropolis of the Abbasid Caliphate, trans. from French (1971), is a general, more anecdotal account. A.A. Duri, Baghdad, in Encyclopaedia of Islam, new ed., vol. 1 (1960), pp. 894908, brings the history to the middle of the 20th century and includes a bibliography of original sources. A collection of scholarly articles on the history and culture of the city (in French) can be found in a special issue of Arabica, vol. 9 (1962). Jacob Lassner, The Topography of Baghdad in the Early Middle Ages (1970), offers a detailed analysis of the city's early geography and development. Robert M. Adams, Land Behind Baghdad: A History of Settlement on the Diyala Plains (1965), studies the area around the city. A discussion of the architectural monuments of Baghdad, with beautiful photographs, is presented in Ihsan Fathi, The Architectural Heritage of Baghdad (1964); and John Warren and Ihsan Fathi, Traditional Houses in Baghdad (1982), is an account of domestic architecture. Modern Baghdad is sparsely covered. Freya Stark, Baghdad Sketches (1937), is a personal account of life and customs, now somewhat dated. Later impressions and good photographs are found in the chapter on Baghdad in Gavin Young, Iraq, Land of Two Rivers (1980), pp. 2567; and William Ellis, The New Face of Baghdad, National Geographic, 167(1):80109 (January 1985). Useful information and detailed city maps are offered in the guidebook prepared by the Baghdad Writers Group, Baghdad and Beyond (1985). Phebe A. Marr Louay Y. Bahry The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica History Foundation and early growth Archaeological evidence shows that the site of Baghdad was occupied by various peoples long before the Arab conquest of Mesopotamia in AD 637, and several ancient empires had capitals located in the vicinity. The true founding of the city, however, dates from 762, when the site, then occupied by a Persian village called Baghdad, was selected by al-Mansur, the second caliph of the new 'Abbasid dynasty, for his capital. His city, built within circular walls and called Madinat as-Salam (City of Peace)and known as the Round Citywas located between present-day al-Kazimiyah and al-Karkh. More a government complex than a residential city, it was about 3,000 yards (2,700 metres) in diameter and had three concentric walls. Its four equal quarters were used mainly to house the caliph's retinue. Four main roads led from the caliph's palace and the grand mosque at the centre to various parts of the empire. The limited size of this city resulted in rapid extramural expansion. Merchants built bazaars and houses around the southern gate and formed a district called al-Karkh. From the northeast gate the Khurasan road was joined by a bridge of boats to the east bank of the Tigris. There, around the palace of al-Mansur's heir apparent, al-Mahdi, grew up the three suburbs of Rusafah, ash-Shammasiyah, and al-Mukharrim, the forerunners of the modern city. By 946 the seat of the caliphate was fully established on the east bank, and Rusafah grew to rival the Round City. Baghdad reached the zenith of its economic prosperity and intellectual life in the 8th and early 9th centuries, under al-Mahdi, who reigned from 775 to 785, and his successor, Harun ar-Rashid (786809). It was then considered the richest city in the world. Its wharves were lined with ships from China, India, and East Africa. The caliph al-Ma'mun (813833) encouraged the translation of ancient Greek works into Arabic, founded hospitals and an observatory, and attracted poets and artisans to his capital. The glory of Baghdad in this period is reflected in stories in The Thousand and One Nights. From the mid-9th century onward the 'Abbasid caliphate was gradually weakened by internal strife, by failure of crops caused by neglect of the irrigation system, and finally, in the 10th century, by the intrusion of nomadic elements. A civil war between Harun ar-Rashid's two sons resulted in destruction of much of the Round City. Between 836 and 892 the caliphs abandoned Baghdad for Samarra' in the north, and the city was taken over by the unruly Turks they had imported as bodyguards. When the caliphs returned to Baghdad they made their capital on the east bank. Invasions and rule by alien elements (the Buyids from 945 to 1055 and the Turkish Seljuqs from 1055 to 1152) left parts of the city in ruins. Centuries of decline This long, slow decline was merely a prelude to the devastating attacks from which Baghdad would not recover until the 20th century. In 1258 Hleg, the Mongol conqueror, overran Mesopotamia, sacked Baghdad, killed the Caliph, and massacred hundreds of thousands of residents. He destroyed the surrounding dikes and headworks, making restoration of the irrigation system impossible and thereby destroying Baghdad's potential for future prosperity. Thereafter Baghdad became a provincial capital, first of the Mongol emperors of Iran, the Il-Khanids (12581339), and then of their vassals, the Jalayirids (13391410). In 1401 the city underwent yet another Mongol sack by Timur (Tamerlane), after which it fell under the sway of two successive Turkmen dynasties (14101508), both of which did little to restore its fortunes. In 1508 Baghdad was temporarily incorporated into the new Persian empire created by the Safavid shah Isma'il I. In 1534 the Sunnite Ottoman sultan Sleyman I retook the city. Despite repeated Persian attacks, it remained under Ottoman rule until World War I, except for a brief period (162338) when it was held by the Persians.