BATHYMETRY

measurement of ocean depth. The earliest technique involved lowering a heavy rope or cable of known length over the side of a ship, then measuring the amount needed to reach the bottom. Tedious and frequently inaccurate, this method yielded the depth at only a single point rather than a continuous measurement; inaccuracies arose because the rope did not necessarily travel straight to the bottom but instead might be deflected by subsurface currents or movements of the vessel. A more satisfactory approach, though not without problems, is echo sounding, widely used today, in which a sound pulse travels from the vessel to the ocean floor, is reflected, and returns. By calculations involving the time elapsed between generation of the pulse and its return and the speed of sound in water, a continuous record of seafloor topography can be made. Most echo sounders perform these calculations mechanically, producing a graphic record in the form of a paper chart. Misleading reflections caused by the presence of undersea canyons or mountains plus variations in the speed of sound through water caused by differences in temperature, depth, and salinity limit the accuracy of echo sounding, though these problems can be met somewhat by crossing and recrossing the same area. Sonar has also been employed in bathymetric studies, as have underwater cameras.