BEAD

small, usually round object made of glass, wood, metal, nut, shell, bone, seed, or the like, pierced for stringing. Among primitive peoples, beads were worn as much for magical as for decorative purposes; hence, little variation was allowed in their shapes and materials. In Arab countries in the 20th century, single blue talismanic beads are attached to domestic animals, children, brides, and even automobiles to avert bad luck. Because of the value attached to them as light articles of trade and as substitutes for coinage, beads yield valuable information about ancient trade and cultural patterns. In prehistoric times, beads were worn not only around the neck but around the hips, over the ears, threaded through the nose, and even attached to the eyelashes. In the Stone Age, the earliest beads probably were plant seeds; but, by Acheulian times, collars of seashells and small fossils were bored for stringing, and, from the Aurignacian and Magdalenian periods, whole necklaces of pierced shells have survived, some of them carried long distances from the sea. Collars made of the pierced canine teeth of Arctic foxes and of chamois and human teeth pierced for stringing also have been found. A type of bilobed bead carved out of mammoth ivory was often worn in Siberian Paleolithic settlements. It was perhaps ancestral to a bone or stone bead of double-ax shape that was popular in the Neolithic period, especially in northern Europe, Britain, and southern France. Beads of stone, bone, and amber, pierced through their narrower ends, became common in the Late Neolithic Period in Scandinavia and are found in Megalithic graves of western Europe. The earliest Egyptian beads, dating from about 4000 BC, are generally made of stone, usually steatite (soapstone), covered with a near-glass glaze; glass itself is not found until much later. In the pre-dynastic period appeared beads of blue faience that continued essentially the same until Roman times. Other favourite materials were green feldspar, lapis lazuli (possibly from Persia), carnelian, turquoise, hematite, and amethyst. Usually these materials were made into spherical, barrel-shaped, or discoidal beads; but locust, falcon, crouching-baboon, hippopotamus-head, and conus-shell shapes are well represented. Phoenician workshops at Carthage and in the Egyptian delta made fancy beads in the form of comic human faces and animal heads. In the Sumerian and Indus valley civilizations, variously shaped gold beads were in use by the early 3rd millennium BC. There were tubular, spherical, and melon-shaped beads, but most distinctive was a tubular bead with two semicircular wings attached to each side, as though in imitation of a plant seed. By 2000 BC a spherical bead resembling a nasturtium seed, with light flutings along the line of the piercing, was in use; it remained popular with the Babylonians and lasted into Assyrian times. Meanwhile, the Minoan and Mycenaean peoples of Crete and the Aegean developed gold beads of great originality and beauty in the shapes of polyps, lilies, and lotuses; there are also a number of spherical Mycenaean gold beads decorated with granulated patterns. Beads of opaque glass with impressed circlets of glass of a different colour came to Britain and western Europe in the Late Bronze Age. Their precise origin is unknown, but they probably were manufactured in the Mediterranean. Among the Indians of North and South America, a great quantity of stone and shell beads commonly was worn, the latter being either complete shells or shaped out of shell. On the whole, except in the classical Inca civilizations of Peru, beads of fine stone were rare. Some, of a curious shape that suggests a double ax, are Peruvian, but there are elaborate Aztec and Inca beads of jadeite and other coloured stones in shapes such as frogs and human skulls. A number of sites in Peru, Guiana, and Honduras have yielded elaborate tubular gold-filigree beads. Since the European Middle Ages, beads have been used extensively for trade and barter. Explorers have found them invaluable as gifts for primitive peoples, and, during the 17th and 18th centuries, this trade in beads was enormous. Their importance was well known to the Spanish conquistadores, whose gifts of Renaissance glass beads manufactured in Venice are said to have been worn until recent times by primitive peoples of Brazil. The use of beads as personal decoration has continued on and off throughout history, the richness of ornamentation varying with fashions.