BEGUINES

women in the cities of northern Europe who, beginning in the Middle Ages, led lives of religious devotion without joining an approved religious order. So-called "holy women" (Latin: mulieres sanctae, or mulieres religiosae) first appeared in Lige toward the end of the 12th century. Use of the word "Beguine" (Latin: beguina) was established by the 1230s. Its etymology is uncertain; it seems to have originated as a pejorative term. By the mid-13th century the movement had spread throughout the Low Countries, Germany, and northern France. The beguinal movement began among upper-class women and spread to the middle class. In addition to addressing the spiritual needs of its adherents, it responded to socioeconomic problems caused by a surplus of unattached women in urban areas. Most Beguines lived together in communities called beguinages. In Germany groups of up to 60 or 70 women lived together in houses; in the Low Countries they usually lived in individual houses within walled enclosures-"towns within towns." Most supported themselves, often by nursing or cloth- or lace-making, and they spent time in religious contemplation. Beguines promised to preserve chastity while they remained in the community, but they were free to leave it and marry. Many beguinal communities were closely associated with Dominican and Franciscan friars, and some communities and individuals cultivated intense forms of mysticism. These circumstances led many people to suspect them of heretical tendencies. Throughout the 13th century they were the object of prejudice and of restrictive legislation, and in 1311, at the Council of Vienne, decrees were drawn up that ordered the dissolution of beguinal communities. Thereafter official policy varied until the 15th century, when a consistent policy of toleration was established. Meanwhile, however, the beguinal movement had declined; many of its members joined formal religious orders. Some communities still exist, mainly in Belgium; most operate charitable institutions. One of the most remarkable Beguines was Marguerite Porete, who was burned for heresy in Paris in 1310. Her mystical work Miroir des simples mes (c. 1300; The Mirror of Simple Souls) is thought to be the greatest religious tract written in Old French. The male counterparts of Beguines were known as Beghards. They never achieved the same prominence, and the few communities that survived in Belgium were suppressed during the French Revolution.