BELGIUM

Government Belgium is a constitutional monarchy. Under the terms of the Belgian constitution, national executive power is vested in the king and his ministers, whereas legislative power is shared by the king, the Chamber of Representatives, the Senate, and the community and regional councils. In practice, the king's role in the government is limited to representative and official functions; royal acts must be countersigned by a minister, who in turn becomes responsible for them to the Parliament. Apart from the secretaries of state, there has never been a constitutionally established hierarchy among the ministers. The position of prime minister was created in 1919 and that of vice prime minister in 1961. Prior to 1970, Belgium was a unitary state. An unwritten rule prevailed that, except for the prime minister, the government must include as many Flemish- as French-speaking ministers. Tensions that had been building throughout the 20th century between the two ethnolinguistic groups led to major administrative restructuring in the 1970s, '80s, and '90s. A series of constitutional reforms dismantled the unitary state, culminating in the St. Michael's Agreement (September 1992) that laid the groundwork for the establishment of the federal state (approved by parliament July 1993 and enshrined in a new, coordinated constitution in 1994). National authorities now share power with executive and legislative bodies representing the major politically defined regions (Flemish: gewesten; French: rgions) of Belgium-the Flemish Region (Flanders), the Walloon Region (Wallonia), and the Brussels-Capital Region-and the major language "communities" of the country (Flemish, French, and German). The Flemish Region-constituting the provinces of Antwerp, Limburg, East Flanders, West Flanders, and Flemish Brabant-and the Flemish Community are represented by a single council (with 124 members); the Walloon Region-constituting the provinces of Hainaut, Namur, Lige, Luxembourg, and Walloon Brabant-and the French Community each have a council (with 75 and 94 members, respectively), as do the Brussels-Capital Region (75 members) and the German Community (25 members). The regional authorities have primary responsibility for the environment, energy, agriculture, transportation, and public works. They share responsibility for economic matters, labour, and foreign trade with the national government, which also retains responsibility for defense, foreign and monetary policy, and justice. The "community" councils have authority over cultural matters, including the use of language and education. Farther down the administrative hierarchy are the provinces (Flemish: provincies), each of which is divided into arrondissements and further subdivided into communes (gemeenten). The provinces are under the authority of a governor, with legislative power exercised by the provincial council. The Permanent Deputation (Dputation Permanente), elected from the members of the provincial council, provides for daily provincial administration. Each commune is headed by a burgomaster, and the communal council elects the deputy mayors. Political life Communal and provincial elections take place every six years, regional and community council elections occur every five years, and national elections are held at least every four years. Deputies to the Council of Representatives are elected directly, as are certain senators, while other senators are either designated by the community councils from their ranks or selected by the rest of the Senate. Each deputy and senator has a language "community" and a regional affiliation. Belgium's leading political parties were long divided into French- and Flemish-speaking wings; however, as the country moved toward federalism, the differences between these wings became more pronounced, and they became increasingly discrete organizations. The traditional parties include the Social Christians-that is, the Christian People's Party and its French counterpart, the Christian Social Party; the Socialist Party; the Flemish Liberals and Democrats; and the Liberal Reformation Party. Other ethnic and special-interest parties also have emerged, including the People's Union and the Flemish Bloc in Flanders, the National Front and the Walloon Party in the French-speaking area, and the French Democratic Front in Brussels. Citizens are required to vote in national elections. They are informed of political events through the press, but, as press ownership increasingly is concentrated in fewer hands, many persons consider the medium to be unamenable to the expression of a wide range of opinion. Radio and television often organize debates and discussions that provide political information. In spite of these efforts, a marked disaffection exists among the citizens with regard to politics, and most national governments are formed by party coalitions. officially Kingdom of Belgium, Dutch Koninkrijk Belgi, French Royaume de Belgique nation located in the northwestern part of Europe. Belgium extends about 120 miles (193 km) from north to south and about 150 miles (240 km) at its widest from east to west. It is bounded by The Netherlands on the north and northeast, Germany on the east, Luxembourg on the southeast, France on the southwest and west, and a 41-mile- (66-kilometre-) long stretch of the North Sea on the northwest. The capital is Brussels. Area 11,787 square miles (30,528 square km). Pop (1996 est.) 10,185,000. Guild houses along the Lys River in Ghent, Belgium. officially Kingdom of Belgium, Dutch Koninkrijk Belgi, French Royaume de Belgique, country of northwestern Europe. One of the smallest and most densely populated European countries, it has been, since its birth in 1830 and 1831, a hereditary, representative, and constitutional monarchy. Its area is 11,787 square miles (30,528 square kilometres). The country is bounded on the northwest by the North Sea, on the north and northeast by The Netherlands, on the east by Germany, on the southeast by Luxembourg, and on the southwest and west by France. Culturally, Belgium is a heterogeneous nation straddling the border between the Romance and Germanic language families of western Europe. With the exception of a small German-speaking population in the eastern part of the country, the nation is divided between a French-speaking people, collectively called the Walloons, who are concentrated in the five southern provinces (Hainaut, Namur, Lige, Walloon Brabant, and Luxembourg), and the Flemings, a Flemish- (Netherlandic-) speaking people concentrated in the five northern and northeastern provinces (West Flanders, East Flanders [West-Vlaanderen, Oost-Vlaanderen], Flemish Brabant, Antwerp, and Limburg). Between Walloon Brabant (Brabant Walloon) and Flemish (Vlaams) Brabant lies the officially bilingual Brussels-Capital Region. Belgium and the political entities that preceded it have been rich with historical and cultural associations, from the Gothic grandeur of its medieval university and commercial cities and its small, castle-dominated towns on steep-bluffed winding rivers, through its broad traditions in painting and music that marked one of the high points of the northern Renaissance in the 16th century, to its contributions to the arts of the 20th century and its maintenance of the folk cultures of past eras. The Belgian landscape has been a major battleground of Europe for centuries, notably in modern times during the Battle of Waterloo and World Wars I and II. Given its area and population, Belgium today is one of the most heavily industrialized and urbanized nations in Europe. It is a member of the Benelux Economic Union (with The Netherlands and Luxembourg), the European Union (EU), and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Relief Flat reclaimed farmland near the border of The Netherlands in the maritime Flanders region of 1/4 Belgium generally is a low-lying country, with a broad coastal plain extending from the North Sea and The Netherlands and rising gradually into the Ardennes hills and forests of the southeast, where a maximum height of 2,277 feet (694 metres) is reached at Botrange. The main physical regions are the Ardennes and Ardennes foothills; the Anglo-Belgian Basin to the north comprising the Central (Bas) Plateaus, the plain of Flanders (Vlaanderen), and the Kempenland (Campine); and the intrusion of the Paris Basin on the south known as the Ctes Lorraines (Belgian Lorraine). The Ardennes region is part of the Hercynian orogenic belt, which reaches from western Ireland into Germany and was formed during the second half of the Paleozoic Era (roughly 300 to 400 million years ago). It is a plateau cut deeply by the Meuse River and its tributaries. Its higher points have poor drainage and are more favourable for peat bogs and upland mossy ground than for crops. A large depression, known east of the Meuse as the Famenne and west of it as the Fagne, separates the Ardennes from the geologically and topographically complex foothills to the north. The principal feature of the area is the Condroz, a plateau more than 1,100 feet in elevation comprising a succession of valleys hollowed out of the limestone between sandstone crests. Its northern boundary is the Sambre-Meuse valley, which transverses Belgium from south-southwest to northeast. Situated south of the Ardennes and cut off from the rest of the country, Ctes Lorraines is a series of hills with north-facing scarps. About half of it remains wooded; in the south lies a small region of iron ore deposits. A region of sand and clay soils lying between 150 and 650 feet in elevation, the Central Plateaus cover northern Hainaut, Walloon Brabant, southern Flemish Brabant, and the Hesbaye plateau region of Lige. The area is dissected by the Dender, Senne, Dijle, and other rivers that enter the Schelde (Escaut) River; it is bounded on the east by the Herve Plateau. The Brussels region lies within the Central Plateaus. Bordering the North Sea from France to the Schelde, the low-lying plain of Flanders has two main sections. Maritime Flanders, extending inland for 5 to 10 miles (8 to 16 kilometres), is a region of newly formed and reclaimed land (polders) protected by a line of dunes and dikes and having largely clay soils. Interior Flanders comprises most of East and West Flanders and has sand-silt or sand soils. At an elevation of 80 to 300 feet, it is drained by the Leie, Schelde, and Dender rivers flowing northeastward to the Schelde estuary. Several shipping canals interlace the landscape connecting the river systems. Covered by pasturelands and industry and lying between 160 and 330 feet in elevation, the Kempenland forms an irregular watershed of plateau and plain between the extensive Schelde and Meuse drainage systems. Climate Belgium has a temperate, maritime climate predominantly influenced by air masses from the Atlantic. Rapid and frequent alternation of different air masses separated by fronts gives Belgium considerable variability in weather. Frontal conditions moving from the west produce rainy weather, with rainfall heavy and frequent, averaging 30 to 40 inches (750 to 1,000 millimetres) a year. Winters are damp and cool with frequent fogs; summers are rather mild. The annual mean temperature is around 50 F (10 C). Brussels, which is roughly in the middle of the country, has a mean minimum temperature of 31 F (-0.3 C) in January and a mean maximum of 71 F (21.6 C) in July. Regional climatic differences are determined by elevation and distance inland. Farther inland, maritime influences become weaker, and the climate becomes more continental, characterized by greater seasonal extremes of temperature. The Ardennes region, the highest and farthest inland, is the coldest. In winter, frost occurs on about 120 days, snow falls on 30 to 35 days, and January mean minimum temperatures are lower than elsewhere. In summer, the elevation counteracts the effect of distance inland, and July mean maximum temperatures are the lowest in the country. Because of the topography, the region has the highest rainfall in Belgium. In contrast, the Flanders region enjoys generally higher temperatures throughout the year. There are fewer than 60 days of frost and fewer than 15 of snow. On the seacoast these figures are reduced to below 50 and 10, respectively. There are a few hot days, especially on the coast, where the annual rainfall is the lowest in the country. Tourist boats on a canal in historic Brugge, Belgium. Belgium has a free-enterprise economy. Only a small percentage of the country's active population is engaged in agriculture, suggesting the great role of industry, commerce, and services in the national economy. National prosperity was long mainly dependent on Belgium's role as a fabricator and processor of imported raw materials and on the subsequent export of finished goods. The country became a major steel producer in the early 19th century, with factories centred in the southern Walloon coal-mining region. After World War II, drastic monetary reform aided postwar recovery and expansion, particularly of the Flemish light manufacturing and chemical industries that developed rapidly in the north, and Belgium was one of the first European countries to reestablish a favourable balance of trade. By the late 20th century, however, coal reserves in Wallonia were exhausted, the aging steel industry had become inefficient, labour costs had risen dramatically, and foreign investment (a major portion of the country's industrial assets are controlled by multinational companies) had declined. The government, in an effort to reverse the near-depression levels of industrial output that had developed, subsidized ailing industries, particularly steel and textiles, and offered tax incentives, reduced interest rates, and capital bonuses to attract foreign investment. These efforts were moderately successful, but Belgium has had to confront one of the largest budget deficits in relation to gross national product in Europe. The government was forced to borrow heavily from abroad to finance foreign trade (i.e., importing of foreign goods) and to sustain its generous social welfare system. Interest payments, public debt, and social expenditures are a significant portion of the gross domestic product (GDP). In the early 1980s the government attempted to reduce the budget deficit; the debt-to-GDP ratio decreased as monetary and fiscal policies were implemented by the central bank. In the early 1990s the government decreased its subsidy to the social security system. The growth of service industries has been remarkable in the Flanders region. Manufacturing is the major economic activity in the provinces of East Flanders, Limburg, and Hainaut. Agricultural activity has continued to shrink, both in employment and in its contribution to the GDP. Agriculture is important in West Flanders, eastern Namur, and the western Lige provinces. Tourism is an important economic activity in western Flanders and the Ardennes. Resources Historically, coal was Belgium's most important mineral resource. There were two major coal-mining areas. That in the Sambre-Meuse valley lies in a narrow band across south-central Belgium from the French border through Mons, Charleroi, Namur, and Lige. Mined since the 13th century, it was instrumental in Belgium's industrialization in the 19th century. Because the easily extractable coal reserves became exhausted, most of the region's mines were closed by the 1960s. By 1992 mining had ceased there and in the country's other major coal-mining area in the Kempenland (Limburg province) in northeastern Belgium. Belgium now imports all of its coal, which is needed for the steel industry and for domestic heating. During the 19th century, iron ore and zinc deposits in the Sambre-Meuse valley were heavily exploited. They, too, are now exhausted, but the refining of imported metallic ores remains an important component of Belgium's economy. Of greater contemporary importance is the mining of chalk and limestone around Tournai, Mons, and Lige, which supports a significant cement industry. In addition, sands are mined in the Kempenland for use in glass manufacturing, clays are mined in the Borinage for pottery products and bricks, and stones, principally specialty marbles, also are quarried. Belgium's water resources are concentrated in the southern part of the country. Most streams rise in the Ardennes and flow northward; three-fourths of the nation's groundwater originates in the south. Since the largest concentration of population is in the north, there is a marked regional disjunction between water supply and demand. This problem is addressed through elaborate water-transfer systems involving canals, storage basins, and pipelines. Although reasonably plentiful, existing water supplies incur heavy demands from industrial and domestic consumers. Moreover, water pollution is a serious problem. In the south a modest hydroelectric power industry has developed along fast-moving streams, but the use of water for cooling in nuclear power stations and in manufacturing represents the most significant industrial usage of water. With the expansion of domestic and commercial needs in the late 20th century, increasing attention has been focused on problems of water quality and supply. Ethnic groups and religion A crowded shopping area in Brussels, Belgium. The ethnic and linguistic composition of Belgium. The population of Belgium is divided into three linguistic communities. In the north the Flemings, who constitute more than half of Belgium's population, speak Netherlandic. Although speakers of English usually call the Netherlandic spoken in The Netherlands "Dutch" and that spoken in Belgium "Flemish," both are actually the same language (see Netherlandic [Dutch-Flemish] languages). In the south the French-speaking Walloons make up about one-third of the country's population. About one-tenth of the population is completely bilingual, but a majority have some knowledge of both French and Flemish. The German-language region in eastern Lige province, containing fewer than 1 percent of the Belgians, consists of 9 communes around Eupen and Saint-Vith. The city of Brussels comprises 19 officially bilingual communes, although the metropolitan area extends far into the surrounding Flemish and Walloon communes. The French-speaking population is by far the larger in the capital region. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Belgium's managerial, professional, and administrative ranks were filled almost entirely by the French-speaking segment of the population, even in Flanders. The Flemings long protested what they felt was the exclusion of the average, non-bilingual Fleming from effective participation in even everyday dealings concerning law, medicine, government administration, and industrial employment. The Flemings gradually gained greater numerical and political strength, eventually forcing reforms that established Flanders as a unilingual Flemish-speaking area, provided Flemings with access to political and economic power, and established a degree of regional autonomy. Many disputes and much rancour remain between Flemish- and French-speaking Belgians, however, and the future direction of the controversy is uncertain. The great majority of Belgians are Roman Catholic, but regular attendance at religious services is variable. Although it is marked in the Flemish region and the Ardennes, regular attendance at church has decreased in the Walloon industrial region and in Brussels. The relatively few Protestants live mostly in urban areas in Hainaut, particularly in the Borinage, and in Brabant. The Jewish population is concentrated in and around Brussels and Antwerp. Demographic trends The annual growth rate of the Belgian population is very low; overall birth rates and immigration exceed death rates and emigration only slightly. Population growth rates, which were markedly higher in Flanders than in Wallonia prior to the 1980s, became nearly equivalent by the end of the 20th century. There has been considerable rural-to-urban migration throughout the 20th century. The institution of policies that made Wallonia and Flanders officially unilingual regions greatly reduced migration between these two regions, but there is considerable migration within language regions. The emigration rate is low. Most of those who emigrate go to other EU countries or to the United States. Since World War II the foreign-born population has increased at a rate higher than that of Belgian nationals. Foreigners continue to come to Belgium, and their birth rate exceeds that of the Belgians. The largest concentrations of foreigners are found in the cities of the Walloon mining and industrial areas, in Brussels, and in Antwerp. The foreign workers are largely Mediterranean (mostly Italian, Middle Eastern, and North African). A modest number of these guest workers return to their countries of origin each year. The Procession of the Holy Blood, Brugge, Belgium. Belgium's long and rich cultural and artistic heritage is epitomized in the painting of Pieter Bruegel the Elder, Jan van Eyck, and Hans Memling; the music of Josquin des Prez, Orlando di Lasso, and Csar Franck; the dramas of Maurice Maeterlinck and Michel de Ghelderode; and in the many palaces, castles, town halls, and cathedrals of the Belgian cities and countryside. Aside from language, the cultural discontinuities between the Flemish- and French-speaking parts of Belgium are minor. Nonetheless, some regions are more strongly associated with particular cultural attributes than others. Flanders is particularly noted for its visual art, and various schools of painting have arisen there. In music, avant-garde tendencies have become influential in Brussels, Lige, Ghent, and Antwerp, while Hainaut remains the centre of the classical and popular traditions. Literary works produced in Flanders have a style peculiar to the region, whereas in the Walloon area and in Brussels most authors are trying to write for a larger French readership that is inclined especially toward Parisian tastes. Moreover, some works that are thought of as French are written by Belgian authors living in France, and others are by writers living in Belgium who are considered French. The arts Belgium's rich artistic heritage makes it an artistic centre of considerable importance. The paintings of the Flemish masters are on display in museums throughout the country; Belgium's contribution to Art Nouveau is clearly evident in the Brussels cityscape; and folk culture is kept alive in a variety of indoor and outdoor museums. Brussels, Antwerp, Lige, and Ghent are centres of contemporary artistic creation. The National Orchestra and the National Opera in Brussels enjoy international acclaim. The renowned Queen Elisabeth of Belgium International Music Contest attracts talented young artists from throughout the world. The International String Quartet Competition in Lige and the Young Musicians' Competition also are significant annual musical events. Additional reading Overviews of all aspects of the country are contained in Marina Boudart, Michel Boudart, and Ren Bryssinck (eds.), Modern Belgium (1990); Stephen B. Wickman (ed.), Belgium: A Country Study, 2nd ed. (1984); Vernon Mallinson, Belgium (1969), detailed and well documented; and Frank E. Huggett, Modern Belgium (1969), thorough and discerning. R.C. Riley (compiler), Belgium (1989), is a bibliography. Introductions to the geography of Belgium are provided by Comit National de Gographie (Belgium), Tweede Atlas van Belgie, also called Deuxime Atlas de Belgique (1984), a detailed compilation of thematic maps with accompanying text in French, Dutch, English, and German; and Jacques Denis (ed.), Gographie de la Belgique (1992), an overview. Raymond Riley, Belgium (1976), studies the country's economic geography.Aspects of the language problem and nationalist movements in Belgium are explored in Alexander B. Murphy, The Regional Dynamics of Language Differentiation in Belgium (1988), a political geographic treatment; Kenneth D. McRae, Conflict and Compromise in Multilingual Societies: Belgium (1986), a detailed review of language and politics in Belgium; Arend Lijphart (ed.), Conflict and Coexistence in Belgium: The Dynamics of a Culturally Divided Society (1981), articles by a variety of Belgian and American scholars; John Fitzmaurice, The Politics of Belgium: A Unique Federalism (1996); Shepard B. Clough, A History of the Flemish Movement in Belgium: A Study in Nationalism (1930, reissued 1968); W. Vincent, Het post-unitaire Belgi: nieuwe beleids- en bestuursstructuren (1977), on Belgian federalization; M. de Vroede, The Flemish Movement in Belgium (1975; originally published in French, 1975); and Maurice Bologne, Notre Pass wallon, 2nd ed. (1973). Information on Belgium's constitution and administrative structure may be found in Andr Alen (ed.), Treatise on Belgian Constitutional Law (1992).Church history and the history of free thought are covered by Roger Aubert, 150 Ans de vie des glises (1980); and Herv Hasquin (ed.), Histoire de la lacite: principalement en Belgique et en France, 2nd ed. rev. (1981). The ideological conflict is well covered in Vernon Mallinson, Power & Politics in Belgian Education, 1815-1961 (1963). Alexander B. Murphy