BERBER

any of the descendants of the pre-Arab inhabitants of North Africa. The Berbers are scattered in tribes across Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt and tend to be concentrated in the mountain and desert regions of those countries. Smaller numbers of Berbers live in the northern portions of Mauritania, Mali, and Niger. They speak various languages belonging to the Afro-Asiatic language family. (See Berber languages.) The ancient Numidians, who were at first allies of Carthage and then clients of the Roman Empire, were Berbers. (The term Berber is derived from the Roman term for barbarians, barbara, as is the name Barbary, which formerly denoted the North African coast.) The Berbers strenuously resisted the Arab invasion of the 7th century AD, but they were eventually converted to Islam. Many Berbers also adopted Arabic as their language and were thus assimilated into the Arab community. The Berbers played an important role in the Muslim conquest of Spain in the 8th century, and two distinct confederations of Berber tribes, the Almoravids and Almohads, built Islamic empires in northwestern Africa and Spain in the 11th13th century. In the 12th century a wave of invading Bedouin Arabs wrecked the Berbers' peasant economy in coastal North Africa and converted many of the settled tribes into nomads. In subsequent centuries, the Berbers of the mountain and desert regions often remained beyond the control of the coastal states. They were pacified by the French in the 1880s, however. In the late 20th century there were about 8,900,000 Berbers in Morocco, about 4,700,000 in Algeria, and smaller numbers in neighbouring countries. The Berbers are divided into a number of tribes that speak distinct languages. The largest of these tribes are the Rif, Kabyle, Shawia, Tuareg, Haratin (qq.v.), Shluh, and Beraber. Though most Berbers are sedentary farmers, some tribes cultivate the lowlands in winter and graze their flocks in mountain meadows during the summer. Others are year-round pastoral nomads. The principal Berber crops are wheat, barley, fruits, vegetables, nuts, and olives. Cattle, sheep, and goats are maintained in herds, together with oxen, mules, camels, and horses for draft and transportation. Sedentary farmers occupy single-story stone houses, and seasonally nomadic tribes erect strongholds of pounded earth for defense and storage and live in goat-hair tents when at pasture. Most home industries, such as pottery making and weaving, are in the women's domain. Many modern-day Berbers are migrant labourers working in Spain or France, and others have migrated to large cities in their native countries to seek employment. Almost all Berbers are Muslims, but various pre-Islamic religious elements survive among them, chiefly the worship of local saints and the veneration of their tombs. Women have a greater degree of personal freedom among the Berbers than they do among Arabs, and Berber local governments tend to be more communal and less authoritarian than their Arab counterparts. Berber society is quite fragmented. A handful of families make up a clan, several clans form a community, and many communities make a tribe. The simplest Berber political structure, found in villages in Algeria and the High (Haut) Atlas mountains, is the jama'ah, a meeting of all reputable adult men in the village square. Fully nomadic tribes elect a permanent chieftain and council, while seasonal nomads annually elect a summer chief to direct the migration. The largest Berber social units, the tribes, are only loosely organized.