BIBLICAL LITERATURE

four bodies of written works: the Old Testament writings according to the Hebrew canon; intertestamental works, including the Old Testament Apocrypha; the New Testament writings; and the New Testament Apocrypha. The Old Testament is a collection of writings that was first compiled and preserved as the sacred books of the ancient Hebrew people. As the Bible of the Hebrews and their Jewish descendants down to the present, these books have been perhaps the most decisive single factor in the preservation of the Jews as a cultural entity and Judaism as a religion. The Old Testament and the New Testamenta body of writings that chronicle the origin and early dissemination of Christianityconstitute the Bible of the Christians. The literature of the Bible, encompassing the Old and New Testaments and various noncanonical works, has played a special role in the history and culture of the Western world and has itself become the subject of intensive critical study. This field of scholarship, including exegesis (critical interpretation) and hermeneutics (the science of interpretive principles), has assumed an important place in the theologies of Judaism and Christianity. The methods and purposes of exegesis and hermeneutics are treated below. For the cultural and historical contexts in which this literature developed, see Judaism and Christianity. Additional reading Biblical literature Nature and significance General articles and notes in The Oxford Annotated Bible (1962), The Jerusalem Bible (1966), and the Genesis volume of The Anchor Bible, by E.A. Speiser (1964); E. H. Gombrich, The Story of Art, 12th rev. ed. (1972); Abraham J. Heschel, Man Is Not Alone (1951), a classic statement of modern Judaism; Erich Auerbach, Mimesis: Dargestellte Wirklichkeit in der abendlndischen Literatur (1946; Eng. trans., Mimesis: The Representation of Reality in Western Literature, 1953), a classic work; William R. Mueller, The Prophetic Voice in Modern Fiction (1959), religious themes interpreting Joyce, Camus, Kafka, Faulkner, Greene, and Silone; Nathan A. Scott, Jr. (ed.), The Tragic Vision and the Christian Faith (1957), essays by 12 writers on faith and the tragic dimension of existence; James Barr, The Scope and Authority of the Bible (1981), questions the divine inspiration of biblical texts. Old Testament canon, texts, and versions Otto Eissfeldt, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, 3rd ed. (1964; Eng. trans., The Old Testament: An Introduction, 1965); The Cambridge History of the Bible (chb), 3 vol. (196370). (The Canon): Frants Buhl, Kanon und Text des Alten Testaments (1891; Eng. trans., Canon and Text of the Old Testament, 1892); Max L. Margolis, The Hebrew Scriptures in the Making (1922); Herbert E. Ryle, The Canon of the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (1895); Solomon Zeitlin, An Historical Study of the Canonization of the Hebrew Scriptures, Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research, pp. 121158 (1932). (Textual criticism, texts and manuscripts, and early versions): Frank Moore Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumrn and Modern Biblical Studies, 2nd ed. (1961); The History of the Biblical Text in the Light of Discoveries in the Judaean Desert, Harvard Theological Review, 57:281299 (1964); and The Contribution of the Qumrn Discoveries to the Study of the Biblical Text, Israel Exploration Journal, 16:8195 (1966); Christian D. Ginsburg, Introduction to the Massoretico: Critical Edition of the Hebrew Bible (1897, reprinted 1966); Moshe H. Goshen-gottstein, Linguistic Structure and Tradition in the Qumran Documents (1958); Theory and Practice of Textual Criticism, Textus, 3:130158 (1963); and The Book of Isaiah: Sample Edition with Introduction (1965); Moshe Greenberg, The Stabilization of the Text of the Hebrew Bible, Journal of the American Oriental Society, 76:157167 (1956). Paul Kahle, The Cairo Genizah , 2nd ed. (1959); Frederick G. Kenyon, The Bible and the Ancient Manuscripts, 5th ed. rev. (1958); Harry M. Orlinsky, The Textual Criticism of the Old Testament, in George E. Wright (ed.), The Bible and the Ancient Near East, pp. 113132 (1961); Bleddyn J. Roberts, The Old Testament Text and Versions (1951); and The Old Testament: Manuscripts, Text and Versions, CHB, vol. 2, pp. 126 (1969); P.W. Skehan, Qumran and the Present State of Old Testament Text Studies, Journal of Biblical Literature, 78:2125 (1959); S. Talmon, Aspects of the Textual Transmission of the Bible in the Light of Qumran Manuscripts, Textus, 4:95132 (1964); Ernst Wurthwein, Der Text des Alten Testaments (1952; Eng. trans., The Text of the Old Testament, 1957). (Later and modern versionsEnglish versions): David Daiches, The King James Version of the English Bible (1941, reprinted 1968); Margaret Deanesly, The Lollard Bible and Other Medieval Biblical Versions (1920, reprinted 1966); Herman Hailperin, Rashi and the Christian Scholars (1963); William F. Moulton, The History of the English Bible, 5th ed. (1911); Alfred W. Pollard, Records of the English Bible (1911); and, with G.R. Redgrave, A Short-Title Catalogue of Books Printed in England, Scotland, and Ireland and of English Books Printed Abroad 14751640 (1926, reprinted 1969); B.F. Westcott, A General View of the History of the English Bible, 3rd ed. rev. by W.A. Wright (1905). (Continental versions and non-European versions): Thomas H. Darlow and Horace F. Moule, Historical Catalogue of the Printed Editions of the Holy Scripture in the Library of the British and Foreign Bible Society, 2 vol. (190311); Josef Schmid (ed.), Moderne Bibelbersetzungen, Zeitschrift fr katholische Theologie, 82:290332 (1960). Old Testament history Two current histories of Israel exhibit the full range of historiographical problems and methods relating to the subject: John Bright, A History of Israel (1959); and Martin Noth, Geschichte Israels, 3rd ed. (1956; Eng. trans., The History of Israel, 1958). They differ mainly in where they begin; Bright begins with Abraham, Noth with the federation of tribes that calls itself Israel in the land of Canaan. They disagree about the demonstrability of such a community in the pre-Canaanite times because of their respective assessment of the character of the Pentateuch. Bright assumes that it was intended as a history concerned to record the early past, while Noth assumes that its thematic traditions were intended to define and celebrate the identity of the later Israel and hence do not constitute a usable historical resource about its earliest beginnings. This whole methodological problem in Israelite historiography is lucidly discussed and illustrated in a little book by John BrightEarly Israel in Recent History Writing: A Study in Method (1956). For the use of archaeology, geography, and history of religion in the study of the history of Israel, see George Ernest Wright. Biblical Archaeology, rev. ed. (1962); Luc H. Grollenberg, Atlas van de Bijbel, 3rd ed. (1954; Eng. trans., Atlas of the Bible, 1956); Yehezkel Kaufmann, The Religion of Israel, from Its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile (1960); and Helmer Ringgren, Israelitische Religion (1963; Eng. trans., 1966). Old Testament literature For various modern critical methods of studying the formation of the Old Testament, see the Old Testament Series of Guides to Biblical Scholarship: Norman C. Habel, Literary Criticism of the Old Testament, Gene M. Tucker, Form Criticism of the Old Testament, and Walter E. Rast, Tradition History and the Old Testament (197172). Among general introductions, the most exhaustive is Otto Eissfeldt (op. cit.), based mainly on literary criticism. The other methods are reflected to a somewhat greater extent in Aage Bentzen, Introduction to the Old Testament, 3rd ed. (1957); and in the briefer, less original but very readable work of Artur Weiser, Einleitung in das Alte Testament, 4th ed. (1957; Eng. trans., The Old Testament: Its Formation and Development, 1961). For pioneering research in tradition analysis of the Pentateuch and the Former Prophets, see Martin Noth, berlieferungsgeschichte des Pentateuch, 3rd ed. (1966; Eng. trans., A History of Pentateuchal Traditions, 1972), and berlieferungsgeschichtliche Studien (1957); the latter deals with what its author calls The Deuteronomic History, an envisioned work containing the books of Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings. The contribution of form criticism to the understanding of the history of the Book of Psalms may best be approached through Hermann Gunkel, The Psalms: A Form-Critical Introduction (1967), a translation of his article in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (2nd ed.) summarizing his seminal work in Die Psalmen (1926) and Einleitung in die Psalmen (1928). Elmer A. Leslie, The Psalms, Translated and Interpreted in the Light of Hebrew Life and Worship (1949), is heavily dependent on Gunkel and illustrates his use of form criticism. The celebrated work of Sigmund Mowinckel on the Psalter, culminating in his masterful Offersang ob Sangoffer (1951; Eng. trans., The Psalms in Israel's Worship, 2 vol., 1962), combines the methods of Gunkel with those of the comparative historian of religion and locates the setting for the production of most of the psalms in the cult of the Solomonic temple. The application of the newer methods to the study of the Latter Prophets is evident in the essays in Harold H. Rowley (ed.), Studies in Old Testament Prophecy (1950). The new approaches were deeply under the impact of Henrik S. Nyberg, Studien zum Hoseabuche (1935). Other books that amplify the implications of his assumptions include: Johannes Lindblom, Prophecy in Ancient Israel (1962); Curt Kuhl, Israels Propheten (1956; Eng. trans., The Prophets of Israel, 1960); and Sigmund Mowinckel, Prophecy and Tradition: The Prophetic Books in the Light of the Study of the Growth and History of the Tradition (1946). Abraham J. Heschel, The Prophets (1962), though of independent origin, nevertheless belongs with those new interpretations of the prophetic materials. An old classic in a new edition, Oliver S. Rankin, Israel's Wisdom Literature: Its Bearing on Theology and the History of Religion (1936, reprinted 1969), presents Israel's wisdom literature in relation both to its extra-Israelite cultural connections and to the rest of Israel's heritage in the Old Testament. Two new approaches to the legacy of wisdom literature, one through literary form and the other through theology, are presented, respectively, in R.B.Y. Scott, The Way of Wisdom in the Old Testament (1971); and Gerhard von Rad, Weisheit in Israel (1970). See also Northrop Frye, The Great Code: The Bible and Literature (1982), and Elsa Tamez, Bible of the Oppressed (1982), an interpretation from a Latin, female theologian's perspective. Intertestamental literature Standard translations of the Jewish intertestamental literature are Robert H. Charles (ed.), The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the Old Testament in English (1913); and Emil Kautzsch (ed.), Die Apocryphen und Pseudepigraphen des Alten Testaments (1900). Paul Riessler, Altjdisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel (1928), is indispensable because it contains translations of the fullest number of writings. The best translations of the Dead Sea Scrolls are Geza Vermes, The Dead Sea Scrolls in English (1962); Johann Maier, Die Texte vom Toten Meer (1960); and Andre Dupont-Sommer, Les crits essniens dcouverts prs de la Mer Morte, 3rd ed. (1964). Albert-Marie Denis, Introduction aux Pseudpigraphes grecs d'Ancien Testament (1970), does not treat the Apocrypha and is important mainly for its bibliography. Basic books dealing with intertestamental literature are R.H. Pfeiffer, History of New Testament Times, with an Introduction to the Apocrypha (1949); Emil Schurer, Geschichte des jdischen Volkes im Zeitalter Jesu Christi, 3rd4th ed., 3 vol. (18981901; Eng. trans., A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ, 2nd and rev. ed., 5 vol., 188591); and Robert H. Charles, Religious Development Between the Old and the New Testaments (1914). Still interesting is Robert Travers Herford, Talmud and Apocrypha (1933, reprinted 1971). Information about the library of the Dead Sea Scrolls is in two books: Jozef T. Milik, Dix Ans de dcouvertes dans le dsert de Juda (1957; Eng. trans., Ten Years of Discovery in the Wilderness of Judaea, 1959); and Frank Moore Cross, The Ancient Library of Qumrn and Modern Biblical Studies, 2nd ed. (1961). A fragment of Ben Sira from antiquity was published by Yigael Yadin, The Ben Sira Scroll from Masada, with Introduction, Emendations and Commentary (1965). The best book about Jewish eschatology is Paul Volz, Die Eschatologie der jdischen Gemeinde im neutestamentlichen Zeitalter (1934). On Apocalyptic and Messianism, see Harold H. Rowley, The Relevance of Apocalyptic, 3rd ed. (1963); David S. Russell, The Method and Message of Jewish Apocalyptic, 200 BCAD 100 (1964); Sigmund Mowinckel, Han som kommer (1951; Eng. trans., He That Cometh, 1954); Erik Sjoberg, Der Menschensohn im thiopischen Henochbuch (1946); and A.S. Van Der Woude, Die messianischen Vorstellungen der Gemeinde von Qumrn (1957). New Testament canon, texts, and versions (Canon): For the relevant primary texts on the history of the canon, see Daniel J. Theron (ed.), Evidence of Tradition (1957), with selected source material in Greek or Latin with English translation; and James Stevenson (ed.), A New Eusebius (1957). For introductions, see Alexander Souter and C.S.C. Williams, The Text and Canon of the New Testament, 2nd ed. rev. (1954); and Robert M. Grant, The Formation of the New Testament (1965). For a phenomenological approach, see Gerardus van der Leeuw, Phnomenologie der Religion, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (1956; Eng. trans., Religion in Essence and Manifestation, 2nd ed., 2 vol., 1963), ch. 64. (Texts): The major text for further study is Bruce H. Metzger, The Text of the New Testament (1964). (Translations): On translation in general, see Reuben A. Brower (ed.), On Translation (1959). For translation of the Bible into English, see Frederick F. Bruce, The English Bible: A History of Translations from the Earliest English Versions to the New English Bible, 2nd ed. (1970). New Testament history (Jewish culture and history): Standard works are R.H. Pfeiffer (op. cit.); and George F. Moore, Judaism in the First Centuries of the Christian Era, 3 vol. (192730). (Qumran, Dead Sea Scrolls): Frank Moore Cross. Jr. (op. cit.); on Qumran and New Testament problems, see Krister Stendahl (ed.), The Scrolls and the New Testament (1958). (Greco-Roman culture and history): William W. Tarn, Hellenistic Civilisation, 3rd ed. rev. (1952). For a broad cultural comparison, see Eric R. Dodds, Pagan and Christian in an Age of Anxiety (1965). (Pauline chronology): The debate can be best assessed by comparing John Knox, Chapters in a Life of Paul (1950), with Dieter Georgi, Die Geschichte der Kollekte des Paulus fr Jerusalem (1965). New Testament literature The following works are useful for commentary, survey articles, and bibliographic material: George A. Buttrick (ed.), The Interpreter's Bible, especially vol. 1, 7, and 12 (195257); Matthew Black (ed.), Peake's Commentary on the Bible, 2nd ed. (1962); and Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy (eds.), The Jerome Biblical Commentary (1968). Werner G. Kuemmel, The New Testament: The History of the Investigations of Its Problems (1972), covers the whole history of New Testament studies with ample excerpts from the major scholars since the 18th century. For a rich introduction to the 27 books of the New Testament with full and balanced reporting on all major issues of contemporary discussion and extensive bibliographies, see Paul Feine, Johannes Behm, and Werner G. Kuemmel, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 14th rev. ed. (1965; Eng. trans., Introduction to the New Testament, 1966). For a general dictionary to the Bible, see George A. Buttrick (ed.), The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vol. (1962). The most extensive tool for the study of New Testament theological terms is Gerhard Kittel (ed.), Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol. 18 (196472, in progress). For New Testament theologies, see Rudolf Bultmann, Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 3rd ed. (1958; Eng. trans., Theology of the New Testament, 2 vol., 195155); Hans Conzelmann, Grundriss der Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 2nd ed. (1967; Eng. trans., An Outline of the Theology of the New Testament, 1969). For general commentary, see The International Critical Commentary on the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, 41 vol. (18951920); for the major German commentary, see Kritisch exegetischer Kommentar ber das Neuen Testament (Meyer Series, frequently updated); Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (Lietzmann-Bornkamm); and Das Neue Testament Deutsch (Gttinger Bibelwerk). For a major French Protestant commentary, see Commentaire du Nouveau Testament and for major French and German Roman Catholic commentaries, see Etudes bibliques and Das Neue Testament bersetzt und erklrt (the Regensburger New Testament). (Gospelstexts): Kurt Aland (ed.), Synopsis Quattuor Evangeliorum (1964), a Greek synopsis, includes the Gospel of John and translations (Eng. trans. 1972) of the Coptic Gospel of Thomas. For a synopsis, see Burton H. Throckmorton, Jr. (ed.), Gospel Parallels: A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, 3rd ed. (1967). For a general study of the Gospels and the Synoptic problem, see Frederick C. Grant, The Gospels: Their Origin and Their Growth (1957). For arguments against the priority of Mark, see William R. Farmer, The Synoptic Problem (1964). Significant new approaches to gospel study are found in James M. Robinson and Helmut Koester, Trajectories Through Early Christianity (1971). For form criticism, see Rudolf Bultmann, Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition, 3rd ed. (1958; Eng. trans., The History of the Synoptic Tradition, 1963). Amos N. Wilder, Early Christian Rhetoric (1971), goes beyond form criticism by fuller attention to modern literary criticism. (Mark): Robert H. Lightfoot, The Gospel Message of St. Mark (1950); and Willi Marxsen, Der Evangelist Markus (1959; Eng. trans., Mark the Evangelist, 1969), are two outstanding works representing different periods and methods of scholarship. (Matthew): For discussion of the arrangement, Old Testament citations, and theology of Matthew, see Guenther Bornkamm, Gerhard Barth, and Heinz J. Held, Auslegung im Mattus-evangelium (1960; Eng. trans., Tradition and Interpretation in Matthew, 1963). David Hill, New Testament Prophesy (1980), a discussion of prophesy both in the Bible and in the church today. Krister Stendahl, Prayer and Forgiveness, in Svensk Exegetisk rsbok, 2223:7586 (195758), in English; and The School of St. Matthew and Its Use of the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (1968). (Luke): Henry J. Cadbury, The Making of Luke-Acts, 2nd ed. (1958); and Hans Conzelmann, Die Mitte der Zeit: Studien zur Theologie des Lukas, 3rd ed. (1960; Eng. trans., The Theology of St. Luke, 1960), represent a classic treatment of Luke-Acts. (John): Among the most important recent studies on John are Charles H. Dodd, Historical Tradition in the Fourth Gospel (1963), and The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (1953); Ernst Kaesemann, Jesu letzter Wille nach Johannes 17. (1966; Eng. trans., The Testament of Jesus: A Study of the Gospel of John in the Light of Chapter 17, 1968); and James L. Martyn, History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel (1968). (Acts): See also Luke above. For Acts viewed in its own time, see Henry J. Cadbury, The Book of Acts in History (1955). Literary style and methods of composition are discussed in Martin Dibelius, Aufstze zur Apostelgeschichte (1951; Eng. trans., Studies in the Acts of the Apostles, 1956). The scope and purpose of Acts are treated in P.M. Menoud, Le Plan des Actes des Aptres, New Testament Studies, 1:4450 (195455); and W.C. van Unnik, The Book of Acts' the Confirmation of the Gospel, Novum Testamentum, 4:2659 (1960). (Paul): For general works on Paul and the epistles, see Guenther Bornkamm, Early Christian Experience (1970), and Paulus (1969; Eng. trans., 1971); William D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism, 2nd ed. (1955); Martin Dibelius and Werner G. Kuemmel, Paulus (1951; Eng. trans., 1953); Johannes Munck, Paulus und die Heilsgeschichte (1954; Eng. trans., Paul and the Salvation of Mankind, 1959); Arthur D. Nock, St. Paul (1938); and Hans J. Schoeps, Paulus: Die Theologie des Apostels (1959; Eng. trans., Paul: The Theology of the Apostle , 1961). See also Krister Stendahl, The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West, Harvard Theological Review, 51: 199215 (1963). For a survey of Pauline studies, see Edward E. Ellis, Paul and His Recent Interpreters (1961); Wayne A. Meeks (ed.), The Writings of St. Paul (1972); and Ernst Kaesemann, Paulinische Perspektiven (1969; Eng. trans., Perspectives on Paul, 1971). (Romans): John Knox, A Note on the Text of Romans, New Testament Studies, 2: 191192 (195556); Krister Stendahl, Hate, Non-Retaliation, and Love: 1QS x, 1720 and Romans 12:1921, Harvard Theological Review, 50:343355 (1962). (I Corinthians): For a discussion of the heresies met in I Corinthians, see Walter Schmithals, Die Gnosis in Korinth, 3rd ed. (1969; Eng. trans., Gnosticism in Corinth, 1971). (II Corinthians): For the arrangement of the fragments of II Corinthians and their redaction, see Guenther Bornkamm, The History of the Origin of the So-Called 2nd Letter to the Corinthians, New Testament Studies, 8:258264 (196162). For a discussion of Paul's opponents in II Corinthians, see Dieter Georgi, Die Gegner des Paulus im 2. Korintherbrief: Studien zur religisen Propaganda in der Sptantike (1964); and his shorter article on this subject, Forms of Religious Propaganda, in Hans J. Schultz (ed.), Die Zeit Jesu (1966; Eng. trans., Jesus in His Time, 1971). (Galatians): For a discussion of the heretics in Galatia, see Walter Schmithals, Die Hretiker in Galatien, Zeitschrift fr die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der Aelteren Kirche (ZNW), pp. 2567 (1956). (Ephesians): For the meaning and goal of Ephesians, see Edgar J. Goodspeed, The Meaning of Ephesians (1933), and The Key to Ephesians (1956). See also C. Leslie Mitton, The Epistle to the Ephesians (1951). (Philippians): For the place of Philippians in the Pauline collection and the meaning of its various sections, see Helmut Koester, The Purpose of the Polemic of a Pauline Fragment (Philippians III), New Testament Studies, 8:317332 (196162). For the concept of Philippians as a testament, see Dieter Georgi, Ein Testament des Paulus (Phil. 3, 2ff.), ZNW (1972). (Philemon): John Knox, Philemon Among the Letters of Paul, 2nd ed. (1959). (Pastoral Epistles): For evidence against Pauline authorship, see Percy N. Harrison, The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles (1921). See also Eduard Schweizer, Church Order in the New Testament (1961). (Hebrews): Concerning the Christology of Hebrews and the idea of the wandering people of God, see Ernst Kaesemann, Das wandernde Gottesvolk, 3rd ed. (1959). An approach to the eschatology of Hebrews and an origin connected with followers of Stephen is found in William Manson, The Epistle to the Hebrews (1951). (Catholic Epistles): For the typical admixture of parenesis, apocalyptic, and the general address of the Catholic Epistles, see Carl Andresen, Zum Formular frhchristlicher Gemeindebriefe, ZNW, 56:233259 (1965). The similarity of style of the Catholic Epistles to later Christian Greek literature is treated in A. Wifstrand, Stylistic Problems in the Epistles of James and Peter, Studia Theologica, 11:3560 (1948). (James): For a solution to the apparent contradiction of Paul and James concerning works, see Joachim Jeremias, Paul and James, Expository Times, 66:368371 (195455); for clarification of special passages with a modern technique similar to rabbinic methodology, see Roy B. Ward, The Works of Abraham: James 2:1426, Harvard Theological Review, 61:283290 (1968), and Partiality in the Assembly: James 2:24, ibid., 62:8797 (1969). (I Peter): For a date in Trajan's time, see John Knox, Pliny and I Peter: A Note on I Pet. 4:1416 and 3:15, Journal of Biblical Literature, 72:187189 (1953); an interpretation of the Descent into Hell is found in B. Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism: A Study of I Peter iii, 19 and Its Context (1946). (II Peter and Jude): For motivation for the writing of II Peter, see Ernst Kaesemann, An Apologia for Primitive Christian Eschatology, in Essays on New Testament Themes (1964). (Johannine Epistles): For speculations as to authorship, date, and nature of the situation of the Johannine Epistles, see W.F. Howard, The Common Authorship of the Johannine Gospel and Epistles, Journal of Theological Studies (1947). (Revelation): Concerning liturgical style and content in Revelations, see Guenther Bornkamm, On the Understanding of Worship; B, in Early Christian Experience (1969). For a study of Revelation as a creative revelatory poem with unity throughout, drawing upon apocalyptic imagery of its time, see Austin M. Farrer, A Rebirth of Images (1949, reprinted 1963). A general survey of apocalypticism and apocalypses from 200 BC into the early Christian era is found in David S. Russell (op. cit.). Apocrypha Edgar Hennecke, Neutestamentliche Apokryphen in deutscher bersetzung (1959; Eng. trans., New Testament Apocrypha, 2 vol., 196365), a standard work; Montague R. James, The Apocryphal New Testament (1924, reprinted 1955), convenient but obsolete; R.M. Grant, D.N. Freedman, and W.R. Schoedel, The Secret Sayings of Jesus (1960); B. Pick, The Apocryphal Acts of Paul, Peter, John, Andrew and Thomas (1909); for Greek texts, see R.A. Lipsius and M. Bonnet, Acta Apostolorum Apocryphe. A Greek papyrus (late 3rd century) of the Acts of Paul was edited by C. Schmidt in Praxeis Paulou (1936); he notes other papyrus fragments. The Seneca letters were edited by C.W. Barlow, Epistolae Seneca ad Paulum et Pauli ad Senecam (quae vocantur) (1938). Biblical literature in liturgy Abraham Z. Idelsohn, The Jewish Liturgy and Its Development (1932, reprinted 1967); Joseph H. Hertz, The Authorized Daily Prayer Book, rev. ed. (1948), Hebrew and English with historical notes and commentary; Fan S. Noli, Three Liturgies of the Eastern Orthodox Church (1955); Donald Attwater, Eastern Catholic Worship (1945), eight Uniate liturgies in English; Josef A. Jungmann, Missarum Sollemnia: Eine Genetische Erklrung der rmischen Messe, 2 vol. (1958; Eng. trans., The Mass of The Roman Rite: Its Origins and Development, abridged ed., 1959); Clement J. McNaspy, Our Changing Liturgy (1966), reforms following Vatican II; Gregory Dix, The Shape of the Liturgy (1945); Bard Thompson, Liturgies of the Western Church (1961), includes the main Protestant traditions. Biblical exegesis and hermeneutics The Cambridge History of the Bible, 3 vol. (196370), includes contributions by specialists on biblical interpretation from pre-Christian times to the present day. J. Barr, Old and New in Interpretation (1966), discusses the relation between the Old and New Testaments and examines critically some of the interpretative principles favoured by exegetes and theologians; another work on this subject is E.C. Blackman, Biblical Interpretation (1957). C.E. Braaten, History and Hermeneutics (1966), discusses the relevance of the historical-critical method to theological study and the idea of revelation through history; F.F. Bruce, Biblical Exegesis in the Qumran Texts (1959), examines the interpretative principles followed by biblical commentaries and other documents among the Dead Sea Scrolls. The major work on the theme of salvation-history in the Bible is O. Cullmann, Salvation in History (1967). C.H. Dodd, According to the Scriptures (1952), shows the various ways in which the Christian interpretation of important areas of the Old Testament provided the substructure of New Testament theology. F.W. Farrar, History of Interpretation (1886, reprinted 1961), provides a classical survey of biblical exegesis from the early rabbinical period to the 19th century; R.M. Grant, A Short History of the Interpretation of the Bible, rev. ed. (1963), is probably the best work of its kind. B. Lindars, New Testament Apologetic (1962), studies the Old Testament quotations in the New Testament as evidence, in their text and interpretation, for the developing life and thought of the primitive church. J.M. Robinson and J.B. Cobb (eds.), The New Hermeneutic (1964), expounds modern hermeneutical concerns. B. Smalley, The Study of the Bible in the Middle Ages, 2nd rev. ed. (1952), remains the standard work on early medieval exegesis. G. Vermes, Scripture and Tradition in Judaism (1961), gives an account of the interaction of the written text and oral tradition in Jewish exegesis of the pre-Christian and early rabbinical age. An outline of the history of biblical interpretation and of the main exegetical trends of the mid-20th century is presented in J.D. Wood, The Interpretation of the Bible (1958); A. Richardson and W. Schweitzer (eds.), Biblical Authority for Today (1951), discusses the difficulties of applying biblical ethics to some of the most urgent concerns of the modern world. J. Coert Rylaarsdam Linwood Fredericksen Robert L. Faherty Nahum M. Sarna H. Grady Davis David Flusser The Rev. Krister Stendahl Emilie T. Sander Robert M. Grant