BONNIN, GERTRUDE

born Feb. 22, 1876, Yankton Sioux Agency, S.D., U.S. died Jan. 26, 1938, Washington, D.C. ne Gertrude Simmons, pseudonym Zitkala-Sa writer and reformer who strove to expand opportunities for Native Americans and to safeguard their culture. Gertrude Simmons was the daughter of a Dakota mother and a white father. When she was eight, she was sent to Indiana to attend a Quaker missionary school for Native Americans. At the age of 19, against her family's wishes, Simmons enrolled at Earlham College in Richmond, Indiana, and she graduated in 1897. For two years she taught at the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvania, but she was uncomfortable with the school's harsh discipline and its curriculum, which was devised to teach European ways and history, thus eradicating students' Native American cultural identity. While at Carlisle, Simmons published several short stories and autobiographical essays in The Atlantic Monthly and Harper's Monthly under her pen name, Zitkala-Sa (Red Bird). The pieces' themes derive from her struggle to retain her cultural identity amid pressure to adapt to the dominant white culture. In 1901 she published Old Indian Legends, an anthology of retold Dakota stories. In 1902 Simmons married Raymond Talesfase Bonnin, and they moved to a reservation in Utah. Gertrude Bonnin became a correspondent for the Society of the American Indians, the first reform organization to be administered entirely by Native Americans. In 1916 she became the society's secretary, and she and her husband moved to Washington, D.C., where she served as a liaison between the society and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. She also edited the society's American Indian Magazine (191819). In 1926 Bonnin founded the National Council of American Indians, and as the organization's president she advocated citizenship rights, better educational opportunities, improved health care, and cultural recognition and preservation. Her investigation of land swindles perpetrated against Native Americans resulted in her appointment as an adviser to the government's Meriam Commission of 1928, the findings of which led eventually to several important reforms. Bonnin remained active as a spokesperson for Native American concerns until her death.