CAESAR, JULIUS,

born July 12/13, 100?, BC, Rome died March 15, 44 BC, Rome in full Gaius Julius Caesar celebrated Roman general and statesman, the conqueror of Gaul (5850 BC), victor in the Civil War of 4946 BC, and dictator (4644 BC), who was launching a series of political and social reforms when he was assassinated by a group of nobles in the Senate House on the ides of March. A patrician by birth, Caesar became prosecuting advocate in Rome (78) and was elected quaestor (69 or 68) and curule aedile for 65. In 63 he was elected pontifex maximus, and in 62 praetor; he served as governor of Farther Spain in 6160. He formed the first triumvirate with Pompey and Crassus in 60 and was elected consul in 59. Caesar conquered Gaul in a number of campaigns between 58 and 50; in 49, after being instructed by the Senate to lay down his command, he crossed the Rubicon, signifying the beginning of the Roman Civil War (4945). He waged campaigns on several fronts, aided Cleopatra of Egypt (49), and acquired the title of dictator. He was assassinated by a group of senatorial conspirators led by Gaius Cassius Longinus and Marcus Junius Brutus. In addition to his military and political feats, Caesar is also famous for his writings, among which are Commentarii de bello Gallico (5251 BC), on the Gallic War, and Commentarii de bello civili (45 BC), on the Civil War. Roman general and statesman in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar. Shakespeare's portrayal of the celebrated Roman ruler is an ambiguous one, stressing Caesar's weaknesses as well as his noble qualities. Cassius speaks the general feelings of the conspirators with his speech Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world Like a Colossus, and we petty men Walk under his huge legs and peep about To find ourselves dishonorable graves. Though he is decidedly uneasy, Caesar ultimately responds to his wife's pleas and the signs of his own impending doom with the speech Cowards die many times before their deaths; / The valiant never taste of death but once. Additional reading Ancient works Two works by Caesar himself are De bello Gallico, books ivii (book viii, covering events of 51 BC, was written after Caesar's death by Aulus Hirtius), ed. by T. Rice Holmes, 7 vol. (1914, reprinted in 1 vol., 1979); and De bello civili, books iiii. The Bellum Alexandrinium, on the wars of 47 BC, De bello Africo, and De bello Hispaniensi are all anonymous but contemporary with Caesar and are included with his works. Other ancient sources include those by Cicero, letters and speeches; Sallust, Epistulae ad Caesarem (although the authenticity of these two memoranda addressed to Caesar has been questioned); Appian, Civil Wars, book ii; Dio Cassius, books xxxviixliv; Plutarch, Lives of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus; Suetonius, Divus Julius; and Velleius Paterculus, book ii, 4156. Modern works Studies placing Caesar in the larger context of Roman history include Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome, rev. ed., vol. 45 (1895; originally published in German, 185456); and Guglielmo Ferrero, The Greatness and Decline of Rome, vol. 12 (190709, reprinted 1971; originally published in Italian, 190207). Books focusing more closely on Caesar's life and career include the older studies by T. Rice Holmes, Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Caesar (1907, reprinted 1971), especially chapters 68, and Caesar's Conquest of Gaul, 2nd ed., rev. (1911, reprinted 1971); Eduard Meyer, Caesars Monarchie und das Principat des Pompejus, 3rd ed. (1922, reprinted 1984); The Cambridge Ancient History, vol. 9 (1932, reprinted 1966), chapters 1113 and 1518; Ronald Syme, The Roman Revolution (1939, reprinted 1974); Lily Ross Taylor, Party Politics in the Age of Caesar (1949, reissued 1975); and Gustave Bloch and Jrme Carcopino, La Rpublique romaine de 133 44 avant J.-C., vol. 2, Csar, 4th ed. (1950). More recent treatments include J.F.C. Fuller, Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, and Tyrant (1965, reissued 1991), a critical account of Caesar's life, supplemented by maps and illustrations; Matthias Gelzer, Caesar: Politician and Statesman (1968; originally published in German, 6th ed., 1960), a scholarly biography; A.H. McDonald, Republican Rome (1966); Michael Grant, Julius Caesar (1969, reissued 1992), and Caesar (1974), popular biographies, with illustrations and maps; Stefan Weinstock, Divus Julius (1971), a study of Caesar as a religious reformer and creator of the ruler cult; Peter Berresford Ellis, Caesar's Invasion of Britain (1978), a popularly written account of the invasion; Zwi Yavetz, Julius Caesar and His Public Image (1983; originally published in German, 1979), reviewing the various debates over Caesar's place in history; Ernle Bradford, Julius Caesar: The Pursuit of Power (1984), a readable survey of Caesar's life; and Arthur D. Kahn, The Education of Julius Caesar: A Biography, A Reconstruction (1986), a contemporary handling of the ancient documents to portray the life of Caesar. Arnold Joseph Toynbee The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica Major Works: Military commentaries: in seven books, Commentarii de bello Gallico, covering the years 5852 BC, written in 5251 BC (The Gallic War, 1917); in three books, Commentarii de bello civili, covering the year 4948 BC, written probably in 45 BC (The Civil Wars, 1914; Caesar's War Commentaries, 1953).De bello Alexandrino (The Alexandrian War, 1955); De bello Africo (The African War, 1955); and De bello Hispaniensi (The Spanish War, 1955), though ascribed by the manuscripts of Caesar, are generally regarded as of uncertain authorship. Caesar's speeches, letters, and pamphlets are all lost.A translation of Caesar's works is available in the Loeb series (191455) and in the Penguin Classics series (1951 and 1967).