CALISTHENICS

free body exercises performed with varying degrees of intensity and rhythm, which may or may not be done with light hand-held apparatuses, such as rings and wands. The exercises employ such motions as bending, stretching, twisting, swinging, kicking, and jumping as well as such specialized movements as push-ups, sit-ups, and chin-ups. Calisthenics promote strength, endurance, flexibility, and coordination and augment the body's general well-being by placing controllable, regular demands upon the cardiovascular system. The exercises can function as physique builders or serve as warm-ups for more strenuous sports or exertions. The exercises arose in the 19th century from the work of the Germans Friedrich Jahn and Adolf Spiess in popularizing gymnastics and were especially stressed by Per Henrik Ling of Sweden as important in the development of education for women. Catherine Beecher, in the United States, was an early advocate of calisthenics and wrote Physiology and Calisthenics for Schools and Families (1857). As promoted by Beecher, calisthenics were intended solely for women, but they quickly became an activity for both sexes. The health benefits of calisthenics were generally recognized by the beginning of the 20th century, and primary and secondary schools throughout the Western world began instituting the exercises as a regular activity. Calisthenics are also a part of military training.