CAMPANILE

bell tower, usually built beside or attached to a church; the word is most often used in connection with Italian architecture. The earliest campaniles, variously dated from the 7th to the 10th century, were plain round towers with a few small, round-arched openings grouped near the top. Typical examples of this type stand beside the churches of Sant'Apollinare in Classe and Sant'Apollinare Nuovo, Ravenna. Round campaniles appeared occasionally in later periods; the famous Leaning Tower of Pisa (begun in 1174), sheathed in a series of superimposed arcades, is a more elaborate version of this type. From the 10th century onward, most campaniles were based on a square ground plan, which seems to have been developed simultaneously in Rome and Lombardy. This type was generally decorated with projecting vertical strips, known as lesenes, and with ranges of arcaded cornices that divided the tower into several stages. The roof, particularly in early examples, was usually a pyramid of low pitch, invisible from the ground. This Roman type of campanile prevailed, with minor variations, throughout the Middle Ages, as seen at Santa Prassede (1080) and Santa Maria in Trastevere (c. 1140). Campaniles in Lombardy resembled the square Roman type, but their elements were usually more complex and elaborate. The top story was developed into a kind of crown to the whole composition, and a pyramidal or (occasionally) conical spire was added. This increasing emphasis on verticality can be seen in the early 14th-century campanile of Florence, designed by Giotto, Taddeo Gaddi, and others, in which the belfry stage is enlarged to approximately twice the height of any other. It was mainly around Venice that the possibilities of this development were fully realized. Venetian campaniles consisted of tall, square, slim shafts, frequently tapered, rising to open belfries at the top. The belfry, which had one or two rows of arcading, was often made of stone, although the rest of the tower was brick. Above the belfry cornice rose the spire, sometimes square, as in the famous 324-foot (99-metre) campanile in St. Mark's Square in Venice (lower portion 10th and 12th centuries, belfry story 1510, the whole rebuilt after its collapse in 1902). Campaniles of this mature type continued to be built in the region of Venice long into the Renaissance period; but elsewhere in Italy, as the Renaissance preference for other forms (particularly domes) developed, they became obsolete and remained so until the early 19th century. Then, an Italian Romanesque revival made Lombardic-style churches with their characteristic campaniles an alternative to the eclectic Neo-Gothic churches in northern Europe (an English example is Christ Church, Streatham, begun 1840). Later in the century, under the influence of the critic John Ruskin, the Venetian form of campanile became popular; it may be said to have inspired the tower at Westminster Cathedral (by J.F. Bentley, 1897). It was characteristic of 19th-century eclecticism, however, that the revived campanile form was not limited to its original uses but appeared also in connection with factories, country houses, blocks of flats, markets, and collegiate buildingssometimes with bells, sometimes with clocks, and often with neither but simply for picturesque effect. Twentieth-century building materials greatly encourage the construction of freestanding forms, and the campanile once again became a common type of tower for churches and other nonresidential buildings.