CHERT AND FLINT

very fine-grained quartz (q.v.), a silica mineral with minor impurities. Several varieties are included under the general term chert: jasper, chalcedony, agate (qq.v.), flint, and novaculite. Flint is gray to black and nearly opaque (translucent brown in thin splinters) because of included carbonaceous matter. Opaque, dull, whitish to pale-brown or gray specimens are simply called chert; the light colour and opacity are caused by abundant, extremely minute inclusions of water or air. The physical properties are those of quartz (see silica mineral ). Chert and flint provided the main source of tools and weapons for Stone Age man. The uniform fine grain, brittleness, and conchoidal fracture made it relatively easy to shape arrowheads by flaking off chips, and the edges produced were quite sharp. Quarrying and manufacture of flint weapons were among humankind's earliest business ventures, and it is sometimes possible to trace ancient trade routes by knowing where a particular type of flint was obtained. From the 17th through the early 19th century, flints again found extensive military use in flintlock rifles. Crushed flint is still used as the abrasive agent on sandpapers for the finishing of wood and leather. In addition, flint pebbles are used in mills that grind raw materials for the ceramic and paint industries; the use of flint pebbles instead of steel balls as a grinding agent is desirable in order to avoid contaminating the product with iron. Considerable amounts of chert are also used in road construction and as concrete aggregate. Some chert takes an excellent polish and serves as semiprecious jewelry. Chert and flint occur as individual nodules or layers of nodules in limestone or dolomite; they are common in rocks of all ages (notably in the Cretaceous chalk of England). Hard and chemically resistant, the nodules become concentrated in residual soils as the surrounding carbonate rock weathers away. In places, chert forms massive beds several hundred metres thick with a lateral extent of hundreds of kilometres. Chert also occurs as a fine powder disseminated throughout carbonate rock; it impregnates shale and, rarely, forms cement in sandstone. It also develops in the vicinity of some metalliferous veins, precipitated by hot ore-depositing (hydrothermal) solutions. Erosion of chert beds or chert-bearing limestone produces chert pebbles, which are abundant in river and beach gravel. Most chert and flint has formed by replacement of the enclosing carbonate sediment after burial beneath the seafloor. This replacement origin (similar to the petrification of wood) is substantiated by preservation in chert of the minute textural details of the enclosing carbonate rocks. Bedded chert is not usually associated with carbonate beds and shows little evidence of replaced carbonate rock structure. This only indicates that perhaps bedded cherts were precipitated directly from seawater.