CONGREGATIONALISM

Christian movement that arose in England in the late 16th and 17th centuries. Congregationalism has occupied a position somewhere between Presbyterianism and the more radical Protestants, such as non-Fundamentalist Baptists and Quakers. Its distinctive emphasis has been on the right and responsibility of each properly organized congregation to make its own decisions about its own affairs, without having to submit them to the judgment of any higher human authority. Although it was not always true in the early days in America, Congregationalists have generally been distrustful of state establishment of religion and have been workers for civil and religious liberty. Their emphasis on the rights of the particular congregation and on freedom of conscience arose historically from their strong Protestant convictions concerning the sovereignty of God and the priesthood of all believers. This attitude has given them an openness of outlook that has led many of them to theological and social liberalism and to active participation in the ecumenical movement. Originally Congregationalists were frequently called Independents, as they still are in Welsh-speaking communities. The main centres of Congregationalism traditionally were in Britain and the United States, but in the 20th century Congregationalists have joined with others to form united churches in these and several other countries. Christian movement that arose among Protestant churches in England in the late 16th and early 17th centuries, emphasizing the right and duty of each congregation to make its own decisions about its affairs, independent of any higher human authority. Although this principle of church government is upheld by several modern denominations (e.g., most Baptists, Disciples of Christ), the designation Congregationalist is usually reserved for those churches that hold the congregational polity to be their primary distinguishing characteristic. Congregationalism developed as one wing of the broader Puritan movement in western Christianity. The general goal of Puritanism was to carry on to completion the work of the Protestant Reformation in England. Congregationalists in particular were concerned to put into practice the Reformation doctrine of the priesthood of all believers. Although active before the English Civil Wars, Congregationalists (or Independents, as they were then more commonly known) gained prestige when Oliver Cromwell aligned himself with this cause. Their political influence peaked in the 1650s, declined precipitously after Cromwell's death in 1658, and was abolished with the Restoration of the crown in 1660. The accession of William and Mary in 1689 signaled a change of mood, and the Toleration Act, passed in the same year, marked the beginning of a process that would finally grant full religious toleration to the Congregationalists along with all other religious dissenters. During the first half of the 18th century, Congregationalists in England did little more than hold their own. Their numbers were small, and their zeal had been exhausted in the struggle to achieve toleration. With the coming of the Evangelical Revival (c. 17501815) this situation changed. Through its association with the revival, Congregationalism gained a new vigour that was to increase throughout the 19th century. An important watershed was the formation in 1832 of the Congregational Union of England and Wales. As Congregationalists consolidated their internal organization, they also forged a strong tie with the Liberal Party. The Liberal victory of 1906 is generally seen as the peak of Congregational influence in English society and politics. As the 20th century progressed, Congregationalists, along with almost all other church groups in England, declined both in numbers and strength. Nonetheless, Congregationalism provided many prominent leaders for the ecumenical movement. In 1972 the majority of English Congregationalists and Presbyterians united to form the new United Reform Church. It was in the United States that Congregationalism achieved its greatest public influence and numerical strength. Through the so-called New England experiment, it became a major factor in determining the character of the new nation. Congregationalism was transplanted to America in two forms very early in the colonial period. The Pilgrims of Plymouth Colony were separatistic Congregationalists; that is, they felt that realization of their ideal of church government required separation from the Church of England. The neighbouring Puritans of Massachusetts Bay, on the other hand, were nonseparatists, holding that the national church was capable of being reformed according to their ideal. Differences between the two groups soon dissipated, however, in the face of a general decline in religious fervour. The adoption in 1662 of the Half-Way Covenant relaxing requirements for church membership was a response to these developments. The widespread revivalistic movement of the 1730s and 1740s, known as the Great Awakening, also helped replenish the membership rolls of New England's churches, but simultaneously it revealed a new division within American Congregationalism. The Calvinism of the founding bodies was being replaced by an Arminian theology that put greater emphasis on human efforts in attaining salvation. A general liberalizing of theological opinion continued in the Congregational Churches during the 19th century, with two results. First was the defection of many churches to Unitarianism. Second was Congregationalism's downplaying of the importance of conversion in Christian experience. The Kansas City Creed of 1913 is usually cited as the definitive statement of Congregationalism's break with its Calvinist past. American Congregationalism has had a varied institutional history. During the first half of the 19th century, the Congregationalists participated in a Plan of Union with the Presbyterians. The National Council of Congregational Churches, formed in 1871, was enlarged in 1931 through an affiliation with the smaller General Convention of the Christian Churches. In 1961 a further merger was effected with the Evangelical and Reformed Church to create the United Church of Christ. The Congregational tradition is now preserved in original name and form in only two or three small associations of churches. While Congregationalists do not constitute a large percentage of the Christian world population, Congregational churches can be found worldwide. Some of these churches (for example, those of Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and Jamaica) trace their roots to English Congregationalism. Other Congregational churches, such as those in The Netherlands and Sweden, were self-originating. Wherever they may be found, Congregationalists share certain characteristics. They embody the idea of a gathered churcha group of believers brought together not by territory but by a common style of life. As a rule, Congregationalists eschew binding creedal statements and view faith as a personal encounter with God. In Congregational worship the preached word is usually emphasized over the use of the sacraments. In common with most Protestant groups, Congregationalists accept only two sacraments, baptism and communion, or the Lord's Supper. Communion is celebrated once or twice a month and is now usually open to all believers; formerly, closed communion was the general practice. Baptism is not required for membership. Additional reading Williston Walker, The Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism (1893, reprinted 1960); Geoffrey F. Nuttall, Visible Saints: The Congregational Way, 16401660 (1957); Raymond P. Stearns, Congregationalism in the Dutch Netherlands: The Rise and Fall of the English Congregational Classis, 16211635 (1940); Gaius Glenn Atkins and Frederick L. Fagley, History of American Congregationalism (1942); William Warren Sweet, Religion in Colonial America (1942, reissued 1965); Douglas Horton, Congregationalism: A Study in Church Polity (1952), and The United Church of Christ: Its Origins, Organization, and Role in the World Today (1962); Louis H. Gunnemann, The Shaping of the United Church of Christ: An Essay in the History of American Christianity (1977), which looks at the merger of Congregationalism with the Evangelical and Reformed Church; R. Tudur Jones, Congregationalism in England, 16621962 (1962); and Bror Walan, Frsamlingstanken i Svenska missionsfrbundet: en studie i de nyevangeliska rrelsens sprngning och Svenska missionsfrbundets utveckling (1964), a study of the Covenant Church of Sweden, with an English summary. Modern interpretative essays include Daniel T. Jenkins, Congregationalism: A Restatement (1954); Erik Routley, English Religious Dissent (1960); and Norman Goodall (ed.), Der Kongregationalismus (1973). The Rev. Daniel T. Jenkins