CRIMINOLOGY

the scientific study of the nonlegal aspects of crime, including juvenile delinquency. In its wider sense, embracing penology, it is thus the study of the causation, correction, and prevention of crimeseen from the viewpoints of such diverse disciplines as ethics, anthropology, biology, ethology (the study of character), psychology and psychiatry, sociology, and statistics. Whereas the traditional legal approach to crime focusses on the action of crime and the protection of society, criminology focusses on the person of the criminal and the essential interests of the individuals of whom society consists. Whereas criminal law has been a relatively conservative force, often slow to change even where change has seemed imperative, criminology as a part of the developing social sciences has been a revolutionary forceits object being not to replace the legal system in dealing with crime and punishment but to supplement it, making it less rigid and more sympathetic to approaches wider than strictly legal ones. Without denying the value of pure research, one must point to criminology and particularly penology as primarily practical subjects or applied disciplines. This practical value of criminological research can make itself felt in several ways. Its accumulated findings can give judges, prosecutors, lawyers, probation officers, and prison officials better understanding of crime and criminals, leading hopefully to more effective and humane sentencing and methods of treatment. Criminological research and knowledge can be equally at the disposal of legislators and administrators to assist in their task of reforming the law and improving penal and reformatory institutions. Essentially this purveyance of information represents a neutral role for criminologists; they garner the facts, and the various governmental officials decide for themselves what kind of practical conclusions to draw from the facts. Increasingly, however, some criminologistslike their counterparts in such fields as the atomic sciencesare demanding that scientists fully shoulder the moral and political responsibilities for their discoveries and for the use made of them instead of leaving vital decisions entirely to their governments. Thus some criminologists, for instance, insist upon actively campaigning against capital punishment, given the facts as they see them. Opponents of this activist role, on the other hand, contend that penological arguments are not sufficient but must be weighed along with political, social, religious, and moral arguments and that this all-round consideration should be left to responsible political bodies. The view does not deny the right of criminologists to express their opinions as ordinary citizens and voters; it does contend, nevertheless, that a government of officials responsive to the popular will, however fallible it may be, is less dangerous than a government by experts. Another question involving the scope and functions of criminology is whether or not it should extend to the study of crime detection, involving such measures as photography, toxicology, fingerprint study, and the like. In several countries, notably Austria and Belgium, and at the school of criminology of the University of California at Berkeley, this so-called criminalistics has long been an important branch of criminological teaching and research, and the distinguished Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science (U.S.) devotes much of its space to criminal investigation. Actually, the only reason for excluding it from criminology is perhaps the expense of staff and equipment, which can be better borne by police colleges and similar specialized institutions. On the other hand, in recent decades criminology has undergone an important and perfectly legitimate extension of its territory by devoting much attention to so-called victimologythe study of the victim of crime, his relations to the criminal, and his role as a potential causal factor in crime. Although the exclusion of criminalistics makes it easier to locate criminology on the map of scientific studies, its origin in, its close relations to, and its partial dependence on so many other disciplines result in considerable diversity and confusion regarding its proper place in the academic curriculum. Universities in continental Europe, when they do not ignore criminology altogether, tend to treat it as part of legal education; even where its principal teachers are not lawyers. In Great Britain the only existing Institute of Criminology is part of the law faculty of Cambridge University; in other schools criminological research and teaching are usually divided between departments of sociology or social administration, law faculties, and institutes of psychiatry. In South America the anthropological and medical elements predominate, and in the United States, criminology, with a few notable exceptions, forms an established section of departments of sociology. Given this situation in which criminology is submerged in other fields, it is not surprising that most teachers and researchers in criminology regard themselves first as sociologists, psychologists, lawyers, or whatever and only sec ondarily as criminologists. Their education contributes to this status; although a number may have pursued some criminological studies in their undergraduate years, criminology is largely a postgraduate discipline, at least in terms of major concentration for students. This floating character of criminology weakens its position and tends to lend doubt to its claim to scientific status. Nevertheless, other disciplinessuch as psychology, psychiatry, history, sociology, and social anthropologyhave gone through similar birth pangs and, even after having achieved more or less assured positions, still face challenges to their claim to being scientific disciplines. The answer lies perhaps in historian H.R. Trevor-Roper's remark, there are sciences and sciences. If the results of research can be viewed relatively, it is possible to perceive science in the criminologist's systematic application of sound research methods and his development of a body of facts from which he interprets general trends on a subject of real importance to mankind. the scientific study of nonlegal aspects of crime, including its causes and prevention. Criminology originated in the late 18th century when various movements began to question the humanity and efficiency of using punishment for retribution rather than deterrence and reform. There arose as a consequence what is called the classical school of criminology, which aimed to mitigate legal penalties and humanize penal institutions. During the 19th century the positivist school attempted to extend scientific neutrality to the understanding of crime. Because they held that criminals were shaped by their environment, positivists emphasized case studies and rehabilitative measures. A later school, the social defense movement, denied the validity of this approach and stressed the importance of balance between the rights of criminals and the rights of society. Criminologists commonly use several research techniques. The collection and interpretation of statistics is generally the initial step in research, but criminologists must also judge the reliability of statistics. Police statistics, for example, describe crimes, not criminals, whereas court statistics, although they deal with the persons involved in crime, include only material brought forward in court. The case study, often used by psychologists, concentrates on an individual or a group. Its reliability may be suspect, however, because of the criminal's reluctance to be honest about himself and because professional ethics often forbid the publication of case histories. The typological method involves classifying offenses, criminals, or criminal areas according to various criteria. There have been attempts, for example, to establish a continuum, from the insane criminal at one extreme through petty offenders to professionals at the other. Criminological prediction, based on statistics and case histories, attempts to forecast the conduct of persons under certain conditions, which may include the effects of treatment. Action research draws on the observations of field-workers involved with delinquents and prisoners to develop preventive tactics. Sociological researchwhich may involve many different techniquesis used in criminology to study groups, subcultures, and gangs as well as rates and kinds of crime within geographic areas. Criminology has many practical applications. Its findings can give lawyers, judges, probation officers, and prison officials a better understanding of criminals, which may lead to more effective treatment. Criminological research can be used by legislators and administrators in the reform of laws and of penal institutions. Additional reading Important titles include H. Mannheim, Comparative Criminology, 2 vol. (1965); M.E. Wolfgang and F. Ferracuti, Il comportamento violento (1966; Eng. trans., The Subculture of Violence, 1967); H. Mannheim (ed.), Pioneers in Criminology, 2nd ed. (1972); L. Radzinowicz, Ideology and Crime (1966), a survey containing much historical material; J.T. Sellin and M.E. Wolfgang, The Measurement of Delinquency (1964), an attempt to find an operational definition of serious offenses and to construct a crime index; H. Mannheim, Social Aspects of Crime in England Between the Wars (1940); F.H. McClintock and N.H. Avison, Crime in England and Wales (1968), partly an updating of the preceding work; L.T. Wilkins, Social Deviance (1964), an attempt to bridge the gap between social research and social action from the viewpoint of the statistician; H. Mannheim and L.T. Wilkins, Prediction Methods in Relation to Borstal Training (1955); S. and E. Glueck, Predicting Delinquency and Crime (1959), and Ventures in Criminology (1964); and A.K. Bottomley, Criminology in Focus: Past Trends and Future Prospects (1979).