DEFAMATION

in law, attacking another's reputation by a false publication (communication to a third party) tending to bring the person into disrepute. The concept is an elusive one and is limited in its varieties only by human inventiveness. Although defamation is a creation of English law, similar doctrines existed several thousand years ago. In Roman law abusive chants were capitally punishable. In early English and Germanic law insults were punished by cutting out the tongue. As late as the 18th century in England, only imputation of crime or social disease and casting aspersions on professional competence constituted slander, and no offenses were added until the Slander of Women Act in 1891 made imputation of unchastity illegal. French defamation laws historically have been more severe. An act of 1881, which inaugurated modern French defamation law, required conspicuous retraction of libelous material in newspapers and allowed truth as a defense only when publications concerned public figures. Modern German defamation is similar but generally allows truth as a defense. In Italy truth seldom excuses defamation, which is criminally punishable there. Generally defamation requires that the publication be false and without the consent of the allegedly defamed person. Words or pictures are interpreted according to common usage and in the context of publication. Injury only to feelings is not defamation; there must be loss of reputation. The defamed person need not be named but must be ascertainable. A class of persons is considered defamed only if the publication refers to all its membersparticularly if the class is very smallor if particular members are specially imputed. Libel and slander are the legal subcategories of defamation. Generally libel is defamation in print, pictures, or any other visual symbols. Slander is spoken defamation. The advent of electronic communications has complicated the classification somewhat. Some countries treat radio defamation as libel, others as slander. Television presents similar problems. Although both libel and slander embrace the essentials of defamation, classifications are important because different liabilities arise under each. These differences generally reflect a policy of holding people less stringently to what they say than to what they writeso as to discourage trivial lawsuitsand a policy of preserving the credibility of the printed word by stiffer penalties. The law also recognizes that printed defamation is more likely to be injurious than just talk. The damages recoverable in libel and slander are also different. Libel lawsuits undertake redress for all injurious consequences of the defamationcalled general damages if they involve loss of reputation and called special damages if they involve specific economic loss. In a slander action one can recover only special damages; however, some jurisdictions do not make this distinction. Defamation is criminally punishable under various statutes, but, to be criminally punishable, it must be such as would provoke a breach of the peace or in some other way directly prejudice the public interest. Usually, liability for a defamation falls on everyone involved in its publication whose participation relates to content. Thus editors, managers, and even owners are responsible for libelous publications by their newspapers, whereas vendors and distributors are not. Actual truth of the publication is usually a defense to a charge of defamation. Legal privilege arising from a special relationship or position also relieves liability (U.S. senators, for example, cannot be prosecuted for anything they say on the floor of the Senate). In certain areas the mass media have broad discretion under the doctrine of fair comment and criticism, but such comment must pertain to a person's worknot private affairsand must be factually accurate.