DRAGOMAN

Arabic Tarjuman, Turkish Tercman, official interpreter in countries where Arabic, Turkish, and Persian are spoken. Originally the term applied to any intermediary between Europeans and Middle Easterners, whether as a hotel tout or as a traveller's guide, but there developed the official dragomans of foreign ministries and embassies, whose functions at one time included the conduct of important political negotiations. In the latter sense the dragoman has, essentially, ceased to exist, especially since the passing of the Ottoman Empire, although in the latter part of the 20th century many embassies in the Arab world still employed an interpreter-courier known as a kavass (Turkish kavas; Arabic qawwas), used largely for ceremonial purposes. The original employment of dragomans in the Ottoman government arose from religious scruples against the use of the language of a non-Muslim people. Ottoman political relations compelled the sultan's ministers to use interpreters, who rapidly acquired a very considerable political influence. The first chief dragoman of the Ottoman government was Panayotis Nikousia. Alexander Mavrokordatos, who succeeded Nikousia, negotiated the Treaty of Carlowitz (1699) for the Ottoman Empire and became very prominent in the development of Ottoman policy. Similarly, foreign emissaries employed their own dragomans as confidential intermediaries between their missions and the Ottoman government. In 1877 Great Britain inaugurated a system for the selection and training of British-born dragomans, and most European powers eventually followed. The functions of the chief dragoman were essentially political in character. The subordinate dragomans transacted less important business, including, generally, all matters in which the interests of foreign citizens were involved. The high esteem in which the dragomans were held by most foreign powers was demonstrated by the fact that they were often elevated to the most important diplomatic posts. The more important consulates in the Ottoman provinces were also provided with dragomans, whose duties were of a similar if less important nature. Banks, railway companies, and financial institutions employed dragomans to facilitate their business relations with Ottoman officials.