DUKHOBOR

(Russian: Spirit Wrestler), member of a Russian peasant religious sect, prominent in the 18th century, that rejected all external authority, including the Bible, in favour of direct individual revelation. The liturgical reforms of Patriarch Nikon in 1652 and the opening of Russia to Western influences by Tsar Peter the Great (reigned 16821721) provoked an opposition that manifested itself in the proliferation of mysticalusually either orgiastic or rationalistevangelist sects. The Dukhobors, combining features of both types of reaction, lived mainly in southern Russia. They rejected the authority of both church and state, relying instead on direct individual revelation supplemented by a growing body of canticles and proverbs handed down orally, called the Book of Life. Priests and sacraments were abolished, the only ceremony being the sobraniye (meeting), at which prayers were chanted around a table laid with bread, salt, and water. Their egalitarian and pacifist beliefs, together with their proselytizing activities and refusal to accept conscription, provoked sporadic persecutions from 1773 onward. They were several times deported and resettled in unfamiliar territory. Leo Tolstoy, the Russian novelist whose principles of moral and spiritual reform found eager acceptance among the Dukhobors in the late 19th century, successfully petitioned the tsar to allow the persecuted Christian Community of Universal Brotherhood, as they were known after 1886, to emigrate. Through funds collected by English Quakers, 7,500 reached Canada by 1899; 12,000 remained in Russia. The Canadian government granted them land on easy terms in Saskatchewan and exemption from conscription. Some settled well, but one group started a series of nudist protest pilgrimages, prompting Peter Verigin, the leader of the large party faction of the Dukhobors, to go to Canada to restore order. In 1908 he founded a communal settlement of 6,000 in British Columbia, which prospered until his death in 1924. His son's lack of leadership and the Great Depression of the 1930s ruined the communal enterprises, and they were not later restarted. The Dukhobors, renamed in 1939 the Union of Spiritual Communities of Christ, have clashed with the Canadian government because of their noncompliance with land, tax, and education laws. They have striven to avoid schooling on the ground that the letter killeth and that schools teach war. Since World War II the sect has become more prosperous, but extremist elements still survive in a distinct group called the Sons of Freedom. The Sons of Freedom have continued nudist parades, arson, and dynamiting, burning their own as well as their neighbours' and government property to show contempt for material goods. Another group of independents has assimilated into Canadian society.