ENURESIS

elimination disorder characterized by four factors: the repeated voluntary or involuntary voiding of urine during the day or night into bedding or clothing; two or more occurrences per month for a child between the ages of five and six (one or more for older children); chronological age of at least five, mental age of at least four; and the absence of a causative physical disorder. Enuresis may additionally be classified as primary (when urinary continence has never been achieved), secondary (when continence was achieved for at least one year and then lost), nocturnal (occurring only during sleep), or diurnal (occurring during waking hours). The most prevalent form is nocturnal enuresis (also called bed-wetting and usually of the primary type), and the disorder occurs more often among boys than girls. A number of genetic, social, physical, and psychological factors may play a role in the disorder. Considerable evidence indicates that enuretic individuals often are members of families in which parents or siblings also have been enuretic. Stressful life events, poor toilet training, and chronic social disadvantage are among the social factors that have been found to increase the prevalence of enuresis. No specific physical factor has been pinpointed, but slight delay in maturation and limited functional bladder capacity have been noted in some enuretic children. While some enuretic children have emotional or behavioral disorders, no causal relationship can be established with certainty. Treatment includes education and reassurance of parents and child, behavioral-conditional therapy, and the use of an alarm to awaken the child when urination is begun. The latter treatment has proved highly effective. Treatment by drugs is usually a last resort; the drug imipramine has had some success, but no single method of treatment has been entirely successful.