FLATWARE

spoons, forks, and serving implements used at the table. The term flatware was introduced toward the end of the 19th century. Strictly speaking, it excludes knives, which are classified as cutlery (q.v.), although in common American usage knives are generally included. In the earliest spoons, baked clay formed both the bowl-shaped receptacle portion and the supporting stem or handle. Later, spoons were made from suitably shaped bone or wood pieces. The Egyptians fashioned spoons of bronze, some having spiked handles to extract snails from their shells. Elaborate cosmetic spoons had carved handles representing human or animal forms; long incense spoons served ceremonial functions. Both the Greeks and Romans employed bronze and sometimes silver for spoons. Some Roman spoons, made of bone, had small holes in the centres of their bowls; the purpose of these holes is not known. In western Europe the Celts used short bronze spoons with broad shanks formed to fit the hand. As knowledge of techniques spread, cutlery production was established in areas able to offer plentiful timber to heat furnaces and provide charcoal, in addition to soft water for the hardening and tempering of steel. Forks, which originally had a single point, were made with two prongs by the Romans. In the Middle Ages large forks with two flat prongs were used for serving. Smaller eating forks were gradually developed, replacing the traditional pair of pointed table knives that were part of the transition to knife and fork. Handles were sometimes made of precious or semiprecious materials. Silver spoons originally had long, pointed bowls, but by the later Middle Ages the bowls were frequently fig-shaped, while the stems were often topped with decorative knobs. Matching sets of spoons and forks in standard patterns were common by the mid-18th century. The modern tablespoon, with its stem ending in a rounded curve and turned downward, was adopted about 1760. Although by the late 17th century individual eating knives were no longer carried for ordinary use, sets consisting of knife, fork, spoon, and drinking vessel were still being made for travelers well into the 19th century. Sheffield plate (q.v.) was employed between 1750 and 1880 for such items as knife handles, serving dishes, tea urns, and candelabra; it was manufactured mainly in Sheffield, Eng., but also in Birmingham, Eng. By about 1860 the new process of electroplating (q.v.) superseded the fusion process used in Sheffield plate. The electroplating of silver onto alloys of nickel and copper was soon common and was followed by the plating of nickel onto brass. Sheffield plate ceased to be commercially manufactured, and surviving pieces eventually became valuable antiques. Though since about 1860 much flatware has been silver-plated by the electroplating method, the use of stainless steel for tableware has grown steadily since 1920. Ferritic stainless steel, containing 12 percent chromium, is used for less costly flatware, particularly in East Asia. The larger spoons and forks intended for use in food preparation are frequently made of stainless steel. Other flatware materials include gold for luxury services and unplated nickel alloys, aluminum, tin-coated iron, and plastics for inexpensive ones. Wood and natural horn are popular for salad servers. Aluminum is especially useful where lightness and low cost are desired; lightweight plastic eating implements are produced for picnic sets, ice cream spoons, and airline food service. The least expensive materials for metal flatware are regular steels electroplated with copper, nickel, or chromium. Silver-plated flatware is manufactured by electroplating silver onto a base metal such as finely buffed nickel silver (an alloy consisting mainly of copper, zinc, and nickel) or stainless steel, its quality being determined by the strength and composition of the base metal, the standard of finish, and the thickness of the silver deposit. Solid-silver flatware, utilizing essentially pure silver, is a luxury item. Standards for silver purity vary, the principal one being not less than 925 parts of fine silver in 1,000 parts, established by the British assay offices for silver hallmarked as sterling. The balance is copper or other base metals that add strength to the finished piece. Similar controls exist in many other European countries, although some nations accept a lower standard of 800 parts of silver in 1,000 parts. In Europe silver articles usually bear hallmarks indicating that the metal contains a prescribed amount of silver. Other marks record the year of manufacture and the maker. In the United States the word sterling when used by a reputable supplier is accepted as a sufficient guarantee, and there are no fixed standards. Modern flatware is produced in all the cutlery centres of the world. During the 20th century the processes used in its manufacture reached a high degree of mechanization. The metal, carefully refined, is formed into sheets of proper thickness and is cut into strips of the required width. These processes involve the strictest control of metal behaviour and correct annealing to remove excessive strains. The strips are fed into machine presses that cut out each spoon or fork in its rough shape, one end being at first almost square for a spoon and rectangular for a fork. The ends of these blanks are rolled again in a direction at right angles to the centre line, reducing the thickness at this point without altering the thickness of the handle. The bowls of the more expensive spoons are no more than half as thick as their handles. After being trimmed, the blanks are stamped in alloy-steel dies that hollow the bowls and stamp a pattern on the handles. In the case of forks, slots are cut out to form the prongs, which are then stamped in dies to the required curvature, tapered, and pointed on abrasive belts. These processes are approximately the same whatever metal is used, although in manufacturing cheaper products, made from thinner sheets, cross-rolling can be omitted and the stamping can be performed in one operation. Subsequent finishing processes vary according to the metal used. In the case of silver, successively finer stages of buffing prepare the surfaces for final polishing or satin finishing. In the case of alloys that are to be electroplated, the articles, after being buffed, are wired individually on frames; quantities of 100 or more can be immersed simultaneously in the series of cleaning baths and plating vats. In most factories the complete frames carrying many articles are transferred automatically from baths to vats and finally to washing and drying. The thickness of the electroplated deposit is increased by some makers at the points of maximum wear; for example, on the centre of the convex surface of spoon bowls. Although the electroplated deposit of silver is specified in grams or pennyweights per dozen pieces and sometimes in actual thickness in millimetres or thousandths of an inch, the more popular method of indication is use of the terms 30 years, 25 years, or 20 years plate. The designation A1 is considered satisfactory as a guarantee of quality if given by a manufacturer of good repute. After the pieces have been electroplated, their surfaces are dull and require polishing. Hand polishing is performed by holding the articles upon rapidly rotating mops dressed with an aluminum compound or rouge. The least expensive plating process is bright plating, in which a very thin coating of silver or chromium is deposited bright, thus eliminating final polishing. Such coatings are of short duration, and the process is therefore restricted to the cheaper grades of flatware. Stainless steel is more difficult to polish than silver, silver plate, or unplated nickel alloys. Techniques have been developed for stamping the cheaper varieties of stainless-steel spoons and forks from prepolished sheet. In some countries stainless steel is polished electrolytically.