GANDHI, MOHANDAS KARAMCHAND,

born Oct. 2, 1869, Porbandar, India died Jan. 30, 1948, Delhi byname Mahatma (Great-Souled) Gandhi leader of the Indian nationalist movement against British rule, considered to be the father of his country. He is internationally esteemed for his doctrine of nonviolent protest to achieve political and social progress. Reared in a deeply religious home that decreed pacifism and the sanctity of all living things, Gandhi received an indifferent formal education in India and in 1888 began law studies in England. In quest of clerical work he went to South Africa (18931914) and was shocked at the racial discrimination there. He became an advocate for his fellow Indians in South Africa and undertook a series of challenges to the government that led to jail. After thorough soul-searching, he entered politics in India in 1919 to protest British sedition laws. He emerged as the head of the Indian National Congress and advocated a policy of nonviolent noncooperation to achieve Indian independence. In 1930 he led a march to the sea to protest the British-imposed tax on salt, and by the following spring the making of salt for personal use was permitted. Imprisoned throughout much of World War II, he negotiated with the British in August 1947 for an autonomous Indian state. In January 1948 he was shot by a Hindu fanatic. Gandhi was one of the very few people who impressed an idea upon a historical epoch. That idea was nonviolence. Gandhi's creed of nonviolence insisted that people struggling for their rights should never violate their basic obligation to respect life. Additional reading Gandhi's autobiography, The Story of My Experiments with Truth, 2 vol. (192729, reissued in 1 vol., 1983), tells the story of his life up to 1921; his Satyagraha in South Africa, 2nd ed. (1950, reprinted 1972), illuminates the formative two decades he spent in South Africa. The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, 90 vol. (195884), includes all his writings, speeches, and letters.A biography by Pyarelal, Mahatma Gandhi, 2nd ed., 2 vol. (196566), provides a richly documented chronicle of Gandhi's early and last years written by his former secretary. Sudhir Ghosh, Gandhi's Emissary (1967), is an autobiographical memoir of Gandhi's informal agent to the British government in 194548. Dinanath G. Tendulkar, Mahatma, rev. ed., 8 vol. (196063, reprinted 1969), tells the story of Gandhi's life mostly in Gandhi's own words extracted from his published writings. Louis Fischer, The Life of Mahatma Gandhi (1950, reissued 1983), is based largely on printed sources but includes the author's vivid personal impressions of Gandhi and India in the 1940s; Bal R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi: A Biography (1958, reissued 1968), is a story of Gandhi's life as well as a critique of his thought and makes use of unpublished government records and correspondence of Gandhi. Penderel Moon, Gandhi and Modern India (1969), reflects a British administrator's views on Gandhi the politician. Henry S.L. Polak, Henry M. Brailsford, and Frederick W. Pethick-Lawrence, Mahatma Gandhi (1949, reissued 1962), is a good introduction for Western readers. Horace Alexander, Gandhi Through Western Eyes (1969); and Geoffrey Ashe, Gandhi: A Study in Revolution (1968), are sympathetic and analytical studies. Robert Payne, The Life and Death of Mahatma Gandhi (1969), is a well-researched biography, with emphasis on the personal rather than political aspect.Chandran D.S. Devanesen, The Making of the Mahatma (1969), covers Gandhi's childhood and youth in detail. Erik H. Erikson, Gandhi's Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence (1969), illuminates Gandhi's life and technique by bringing to bear on them the insights of psychoanalysis. Another psychological biography is E. Victor Wolfenstein, The Revolutionary Personality: Lenin, Trotsky, Gandhi (1967, reprinted 1971). See also Joseph J. Doke, M.K. Gandhi: An Indian Patriot in South Africa (1909, reprinted 1967); Calvin Kytle, Gandhi: Soldier of Nonviolence, rev. ed. (1982); and Gerald Gold, Gandhi: A Pictorial Biography (1983).Robert A. Huttenback, Gandhi in South Africa: British Imperialism and the Indian Question, 18601914 (1971), is a study of the Indian community's struggle in South Africa; a study of Gandhi's role in Indian politics and the nationalist movement is presented in Judith M. Brown, Gandhi's Rise to Power: Indian Politics 19151922 (1972), and Gandhi and Civil Disobedience: The Mahatma in Indian Politics, 192834 (1977). Susanne H. Rudolph and Lloyd I. Rudolph, Gandhi: The Traditional Roots of Charisma (1983), which discusses Gandhi's remaining influence, was originally published as the second part of the authors' The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India (1967). Francis G. Hutchins, India's Revolution: Gandhi and the Quit India Movement (1973), is an interpretive study. Gene Sharp, Gandhi as a Political Strategist (1979), is a study of the relation of pacifist principles to political techniques; and Jai Chand Dev Sethi, Gandhi Today (1978), includes an analysis of Gandhian economics.Among the books containing reminiscences of Gandhi, the more important are: Millie G. Polak, Mr. Gandhi: The Man (1931); Jawaharlal Nehru, An Autobiography (1936, reissued 1980); Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (ed.), Mahatma Gandhi: Essays and Reflections of His Life and Work, 2nd ed. (1949, reissued 1977); Chandrashanker Shukla (ed.), Incidents of Gandhiji's Life (1949); Nirmal Kumar Bose, My Days with Gandhi (1953, reissued 1974); Eli S. Jones, Mahatma Gandhi: An Interpretation (1948); and Vincent Sheean, Lead, Kindly Light (1949). James D. Hunt, Gandhi in London (1978), documents his five visits, with little-known details of those in 1906 and 1909. William L. Shirer, Gandhi: A Memoir (1979, reprinted 1982), is based on the author's work as a journalist in India in the 1930s.Among the books highly critical of Gandhi are Bhimrao R. Ambedkar, What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchables (1945, reissued 1977); Chettur Sankaran Nair, Gandhi and Anarchy (1922); and Indulal K. Yajnik, Gandhi As I Know Him, rev. ed. (1943). Martin B. Green, The Challenge of the Mahatmas (1978), and Tolstoy and Gandhi: Men of Peace (1983), are the first and the last books of the author's trilogy on great leaders and their influence. Raghavan N. Iyer, The Moral and Political Thought of Mahatma Gandhi (1973, reprinted 1978), compares his concepts to those of Western thinkers. Arne Naess, Gandhi and the Nuclear Age (1965), and Gandhi and Group Conflict (1974), explore basic principles and assumptions of Gandhi's philosophical system. Glyn Richards, The Philosophy of Gandhi (1982), explores the relation of his ideas to Hindu metaphysics and to contemporary philosophy. Ved Mehta, Mahatma Gandhi and His Apostles (1977), examines the spread of Gandhi's ideas.There are numerous anthologies of Gandhi's writings. Selected Writings of Mahatma Gandhi (1951, reissued 1971), ed. by Ronald Duncan; and All Men Are Brothers (1959, reissued 1980), ed. by Krishna Kripalani, are judicious selections for the general reader. The Words of Gandhi (1982) is an illustrated selection of quotations, collected and edited by Richard Attenborough.