GRAPE

any member of the grape genus, Vitis (family Vitaceae), with about 60 species native to the north temperate zone, including varieties that may be eaten as table fruit, dried to produce raisins, or crushed to make grape juice or wine. Vitis vinifera, the species most commonly used in wine making, was successfully cultivated in the Old World for thousands of years and was eventually brought to California. Fossilized grape leaves, stem pieces and seeds unearthed from Miocene and Tertiary deposits in the Northern Hemisphere indicate the long existence and wide distribution of the vine, as it was known to the ancients. Several species are native to North America, notably V. Labrusca, or V. aestivalis, the American wild bunch grape; and V. rotundifolia, the popular muscadine grape of the southeastern U.S. The grape is usually a woody vine, climbing by means of tendrils (modified branches) and when untrained often reaching a length of 17 metres (56 feet) or more. In arid regions it may form an almost erect shrub. The leaves are alternate, palmately lobed, and always tooth-edged. Small, greenish flowers, in clusters, precede the fruit, which varies in colour from almost black to green, red, and amber. Botanically, the fruit is a berry, more or less globular, within the juicy pulp of which lie the seeds. In many varieties the fruit develops a whitish powdery coating, or bloom. Grapes contain such minerals as calcium and phosphorus and are a source of vitamin A. All grapes contain sugar (glucose and fructose) in varying quantities depending upon the variety. Those having the most glucose are the most readily fermented. Grape cultivation, or viticulture, is nearly as old as civilization; details for grape and wine production figured in the hieroglyphics of the 4th (2400 BC), 17th, and 18th dynasties of Egypt. According to the Bible, Noah planted a vineyard. In Homer's time, wine was a regular commodity among the Greeks. The Phoenicians carried the grape into France about 600 BC; the Romans planted grapes in the Rhine Valley not later than the 2nd century AD. Pliny the Elder described 91 varieties of grapes, distinguished 50 kinds of wines, and described vine-training methods. Coinciding with the westward spread of grape culture, grapes were moved into the Orient by way of India. As new lands were colonized, the grape was taken along, so that it is cultivated on all continents and islands where the climate is favourable. Vinifera grapes require long, dry, warm-to-hot summers and cool winters for their best development. Severe winter conditions destroy unprotected vines; spring frosts occurring after the vines start growth will kill the shoots and clusters. Grapes are adapted to a wide range of soils, ranging from blow sands to clay loams, from shallow to very deep soils, from highly calcareous to noncalcareous soils, and from very low to high fertility. Commercial grape varieties are propagated with cuttings, segments or canes, or grafts. Cuttings are usually grown for one year in a nursery to develop roots. The grafts consist of a segment of a stem of a fruiting variety placed on a rootstock cutting. The rootstock cuttings are field budded to the desired fruiting variety in late summer after being planted in the vineyard. The point of union of grafted or budded vines must be situated well above the ground level in order to prevent the production of scion roots. Training is necessary to develop a vine of desirable form. It is accomplished by pruning the young vine and then tying both it and its growth to a support. Pruning is the most important single vineyard operation. With wine and raisin varieties, it is usually the sole means of regulating the crop, largely determining not only the quality of the fruit but also the quality of the wood for the next year. At the annual pruning, 90 to 95 percent or more of the year's growth is removed, leaving the spurs or fruit canes or both. The grape is subject to several parasites, including Phylloxera, a vine louse native to eastern America, brought into Europe on American vines in the late 1800s, causing widespread vineyard damage, finally halted by grafting the European varieties to American rootstock more resistant to this parasite. Grapes are harvested upon reaching the stage best suited for the intended use. Wine grapes are harvested when sugar content reaches its highest point, and the skins are covered with a waxy coating, trapping the yeasts that will later help produce fermentation. Delays in harvesting may cause unpleasant aroma in the wine produced or allow bacteria to attack the grape sugar. The mature fruit of all varieties, about 8,000 altogether, will ferment into a kind of wine when crushed, and most grapes can be dried or eaten fresh. But only a limited number of varieties produce standard or higher quality wines, three varieties account for most of the raisins of commerce, only 15 to 20 varieties are grown extensively as table grapes, a single variety yields the bulk of sweet juice produced in the U.S., and only a few varieties are used for canning. Acreage devoted to cultivation of grapes averaged more than 3,500,000 acres (1,400,000 hectares) in the 1970s in France, Italy, and Spain; more than 1,000,000 ac in Turkey; and more than 650,000 ac in Algeria, Argentina, Greece, Hungary, Portugal, Romania, and the U.S. Other principal grape-producing countries with more than 280,000 acres of vines include Australia, Bulgaria, Chile, Germany, Syria, and South Africa. See also raisin.