HAN DYNASTY

Pinyin Han (206 BCAD 220), the second great Chinese Imperial dynasty, considered the prototype for all later Chinese dynasties. So thoroughly did the Han dynasty establish what was thereafter considered Chinese culture that the Chinese word denoting someone who is Chinese means a man of Han. The dynasty was founded by Liu Pang, later Kao Tsu (256195 BC), a man of humble birth who led the revolt against the repressive policies of the preceding short-lived Ch'in dynasty (221206 BC). The Han copied the highly centralized Ch'in administrative structure, dividing the country into a series of administrative areas ruled by centrally appointed officials and developing a salaried bureaucracy in which promotion was based primarily on merit. Unlike the Ch'in, however, the Han adopted a Confucian ideology that emphasized moderation and virtue and thereby masked the authoritarian policies of the regime. So successful was this policy that the Han lasted longer than any other Chinese empire, reigningwith a short interruption when Wang Mang temporarily usurped the throne and established the Hsin dynasty (AD 925)for more than 400 years. Some scholars divide the Han into two sections, calling the period before Wang Mang's usurpation, when the capital was in the western Chinese city of Ch'ang-an, the Former, or Western, Han (206 BCAD 25) and the period after Wang Mang, when the capital was moved eastward to Lo-yang, the Later, or Eastern, Han (AD 25220). The book burning and repression of the Ch'in dynasty were designed to stamp out all forms of cultural expression except a writing system for keeping records; the brutish Ch'in reign, however, was too brief to accomplish thoroughly such a broad goal, and the vestiges of culture were revived by the successor Han. The latter was not only a literate society but one of compulsive record keepers. Thus, the cultural milieu of the Han was well documented. The Yeh-fu, or Music Bureau, for example, compiled detailed descriptions of the music of the day and its instruments, techniques, and songs. In the court and the Confucian temples, music fell into two categories: music to accompany banquets and ritual music. In temple rituals, dance was often an important element, and something resembling a system of dance notation recorded the movements of large bands of musicians and companies of dancers in their performances. There also were highly informal dances with much body movement but little footwork that were part of private entertainment. Several forms of plucked string instruments were in use during the Han. Buddhism came to China from India during the dynasty, and with it came richly sonorous bronze bells. A form of drama appeared in which performers acted out the heroic deeds of celebrated warriors. Although little except walls and tombs remains of Han architecture, much has been learned about the style from ming ch'i house models and paintings on tomb tiles. Imperial records describe the main palace of the Eastern Han at Lo-yang as being immensely proportioned, surrounded by tall towers variously of timber, stone, and brick. The tombs had vaulted roofs and were enclosed in huge earthen mounds that still stand centuries after their contents were looted. Interior walls of important buildings were plastered and paintedso the ubiquitous records relatewith figures, portraits, and scenes from history. Although the names of the artists did not survive, the highest-ranking of themthe tai-chao, or painters-in-attendancewere close associates of the emperor, a tradition carried on in ensuing dynasties down to modern times. In addition to wall paintings, paintings on standing room-divider screens and on rolls or scrolls of silk appeared in the Han. The first major stone tomb sculpture in China was created in the Han period, and lifelike clay figurines of people and animals also appeared. In the Former Han, bronzework continued the style of the late Chou dynasty and often was inlaid with silver and gold. Bronze vessels were made both for sacrificial rituals and for household use, the latter including lamps, mirrors, and garment hooks fashioned in the form of humans, animals, and mythical beasts. The weaving of silk in rich colours and patterns of geometric designs or cloud and mountain themes became a major industry and source of export trade. Han potters included house models and human figures among their funerary wares, and two types of glazed ware were used domestically, often closely imitating the shape and design of bronze vessels. The Shang dynasty discovered lacquer, but it was the Han that brought its lacquerwork to such perfection that some of its lacquered wine cups in perfect condition have been excavated from water-sodden graves in North China. Many exquisite examples of Han lacquerware survive. Poetry was nurtured by the Han dynasty, and a new genre, fu, a combination of rhyme and prose, began to flourish. Fu were long, descriptive compositions meant to entertain, and they became the norm of creative writing. About 1,000 examples survive. The prose literature of the era included works of history, philosophy, and politics. One of the greatest of early histories comes from this period in the Shih-chi of Ssu-ma Ch'ien. In sharp distinction from the Ch'in, who tried to suppress culture, the Han came to require cultural accomplishment from their public servants, making mastery of classical texts a condition of employment. The title list of the enormous imperial library is China's first bibliography. Its text included works on practical matters such as mathematics and medicine, as well as treatises on philosophy and religion and the arts. Advancement in science and technology was also sought by the rulers, and the Han invented paper, used water clocks and sundials, and developed a seismograph. Calendars were published frequently during the period. The governmental, cultural, and technological achievements of the Han were such that every ensuing dynasty sought to emulate them.