HORSEMANSHIP

the art of training, riding, and handling horses. Good horsemanship requires that a rider control the animal's direction, gait, and speed with maximum effectiveness and minimum effort. Riders are able to communicate to their horses through the use of aids; in theory, natural aids are a rider's balance, seat (riding position or style), hands, voice, and legs, whereas artificial aids include bits, reins, saddles, and spurs. Throughout the ages, horses have been ridden for transport, for hunting and fighting, and for competitive sports and recreation. Sculptures and drawings that date from the 2nd millennium BC show men and women on horseback, and the 4th-century-BC treatise Peri hippikes by the Greek historian Xenophon includes comments on training horses that are still valid. Horse racing as sport had begun by the 7th century BC, and organized games were held in the ancient Olympic Games of Greece. The art of riding was long practiced by cavalrymen, cowboys, and others whose work required riding on horseback. During the European Middle Ages, when the cavalry was the main force in battles, the increasing weight of military armour necessitated more massive horses, and the breeding of horses developed into a profitable business. The development of firearms led to the shedding of armour, and modifications were made to the saddle, stirrup, and other riding aids, greatly improving the horse's maneuverability. Advances were made in the training of horses and styles of riding as well. The classical riding seat, in which the rider sits deep in the saddle while holding his body erect, was developed at the Spanish Imperial Riding School of Vienna in the 18th century. This technique remains the classical style used in dressage competition, which is a test of a horse's general training and obedience, but for cross-country and race riding, a less formal, forward seat is preferred. Beginning in the 19th century, mechanized transport made the horse less important, and horses are now used mainly for spectator sports and horse shows, in which show jumping has become increasingly popular. The Royal Dublin Society organized the first international horse show in 1864. It continues to be an exhibition of various types and classes of horses but also features international riding and jumping contests. In the United Kingdom the most important equestrian events are the Horse of the Year, Richmond Royal Horse, and Royal International Horse shows. In the United States the National Horse Show in New York City is preeminent. The Olympic Games of 1900 included jumping events, and equestrian competition has been a permanent part of the Olympic Games since 1912; the program consists of a dressage and a jumping grand prix and a three-day (all-around) event, all open to team and individual competition. the art of riding, handling, and training horses. Good horsemanship requires that a rider control the animal's direction, gait, and speed with maximum effectiveness and minimum efforts. Horsemanship evolved, of necessity, as the art of riding with maximum discernment and a minimum of interference with the horse. Until the 20th century riding was a monopoly of the cavalry, of cowboys and others whose work required riding on horseback, and of the wealthy, who rode for sport. Although hunting and polo tend to remain sports of the wealthy and the role of the horse in battle has ended, special value is now placed on horse shows of a high standard, in which the most popular event is undoubtedly show jumping. Horsemanship has remained a valued social asset and symbol of prestige, but the opening of many new riding clubs and stables has made riding and horsemanship accessible to a much larger segment of the population. Charles Edward Casolani The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica Additional reading General works Mary Gordon-Watson, The Handbook of Riding (1982); Albert E. Decarpentry, Academic Equitation, trans. from the French (1971); Vladimir S. Littauer, Common Sense Horsemanship, 2nd ed. (1963, reprinted 1974); Henry Wynmalen, Equitation, 2nd ed. (1952, reissued 1971); Earl R. Farschler, Riding and Training, new ed. (1959, reissued 1972), which contains a description of the gaits; Jean S.-F. Paillard, Understanding Equitation, trans. from the French (1974); C.E.G. Hope, The Horseman's Manual (1972); Jane Kidd, Horsemanship in Europe (1977); and Myron J. Smith, Equestrian Studies (1981), a classified bibliography of more than 4,600 English-language items appearing between 1950 and 1980. See also Jackie Spaulding, The Family Horse: How to Choose, Care for, Train and Work Your Horse (1982). History Stan Steiner, Dark and Dashing Horsemen (1981); Charles Chenevix Trench, A History of Horsemanship (1970); and Glenn R. Vernam, Man on Horseback (1964, reissued 1972), which includes information on the origin and detail of equipment. Horse shows R.S. Summerhays and C.E.G. Hope, Horse Shows: The Judges, Stewards, Organizers (1969); American Horse Shows Association Rule Book (biennial); Harlan C. Abbey, Horses and Horse Shows (1980); Judy Richter, Horse and Rider: From Basics to Show Competition (1982); Edward Hart, Care and Showing of the Heavy Horse (1981); and Lynda Bloom, Fitting and Showing the Halter Horse (1980). Rules The rules for international competitions are given in publications of the Fdration questre Internationale; in Bob Phillips (ed.), Official Report of the Olympic Games (1969); and in various publications of the British Horse Society. Dressage Richard L. Wtjen, Dressage Riding: A Guide for the Training of Horse and Rider, 3rd rev. ed. (1979; originally published in German, 1922; 7th German ed., 1975); Hans Handler, The Spanish Riding School, trans. from the German (1972); Elwyn Hartley Edwards, Saddlery: Modern Equipment for Horse and Stable (1963, reissued 1973); and The USCTA Book of Eventing: The Official Handbook of the United States Combined Training Association, ed. by Sally O'Connor (1982). (Jumping): J.A. Talbot-Ponsonby, Harmony in Horsemanship (1964, reissued 1972); F.C. Avis, Horses and Show Jumping Dictionary, 2nd ed., ed. by Margaret B. Slessor (1979); and Federico Caprilli, The Caprilli Papers: Principles of Outdoor Equitation, trans. and ed. by P. Santini (1967). Charles Edward Casolani The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica