JESUIT

member of Society of Jesus (S.J.) a Roman Catholic order of religious men, founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola, noted for its educational, missionary, and charitable works, once regarded by many as the principal agent of the Counter-Reformation and later a leading force in modernizing the church. The Jesuits have always been a controversial group regarded by some as a society to be feared and condemned and by others as the most laudable and esteemed religious order in the Catholic Church. The order grew out of the activity of Ignatius, a Spanish soldier who experienced a religious conversion during a period of convalescence from a wound received in battle. After a period of intense prayer, he composed the Spiritual Exercises, a guidebook to convert the heart and mind to a closer following of Christ. On Aug. 15, 1534, at Paris, six young men who had met him at the University of Paris and made a retreat according to the Spiritual Exercises joined him in binding themselves by vows to poverty, chastity, and a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. If this last promise did not prove possible, as it did not, they vowed to accept any apostolic work requested by the pope. In 1539 Ignatius drafted the first outline of the order's organization, which Pope Paul III approved on Sept. 27, 1540. The society introduced several innovations in the form of the religious life. Among these were the discontinuance of many medieval practicessuch as regular penances or fasts obligatory on all, a common uniform, and the choral recitation of the liturgical officein the interest of greater mobility and adaptability. Other innovations included a highly centralized form of authority with life tenure for the head of the order; probation lasting many years before final vows; gradation of members; and lack of a female branch. Particular emphasis was laid upon the virtue of obedience, including special obedience to the pope. Emphasis was also placed upon flexibility, a condition that allowed Jesuits to become involved in a great variety of ministries in all parts of the world. The society grew rapidly, and it quickly assumed a prominent role in the Counter-Reformation defense and revival of Catholicism. Almost from the beginning, education and scholarship became the principal work. The early Jesuits, however, also produced preachers and catechists who devoted themselves to the care of the young, the sick, prisoners, prostitutes, and soldiers; and they were often called upon to undertake the controversial task of confessor to many of the royal and ruling families of Europe. The society entered the foreign mission field within months of its founding as Ignatius sent Francis Xavier, his most gifted companion, and three others to the East. More Jesuits were to be involved in missionary work than in any other activity, save education. By the time of Ignatius' death in 1556, about 1,000 Jesuits were already working throughout Europe and in Asia, Africa, and the New World. By 1626 the number of Jesuits was 15,544; and in 1749 the total was 22,589. The preeminent position of the Jesuits among the religious orders and their championship of the pope exposed them to hostility. By the middle of the 18th century a variety of adversaries, both lay and clerical, were seeking to destroy the society. The opposition can be traced to several reasons, primarily, perhaps, to the anticlerical and anti-papal spirit of the times. In 1773 Pope Clement XIV, under pressure especially from the governments of France, Spain, and Portugal, issued a decree abolishing the order. The society's corporate existence was maintained in Russia, where political circumstancesnotably the opposition of Catherine II the Greatprevented the canonical execution of the suppression. The demand that the Jesuits take up their former work, especially in the field of education and in the missions, became so insistent that in 1814 Pope Pius VII reestablished the society. After the restoration, the order grew to be the largest order of male religious. Work in education on all levels continued to involve more Jesuits than any other activity; but the number of Jesuits working in the mission fields, especially in Asia and Africa, exceeded that of any other religious order. They were also involved in a broad and complex list of activities, including work in the field of communications, in social work, in ecumenical groups, and even in politics.