LACTATION

the secretion and yielding of milk by females after giving birth. The milk is produced by the mammary glands, which are contained within the breasts. (See also mammary gland.) Lactation is induced by a change in hormonal balance. Although the mammary glands enlarge during pregnancy, and some milk is formed, copious milk secretion begins about 3 days after the placenta is delivered or removed; this precipitates an increase in the secretion of prolactin, a hormone that stimulates the production of milk from the alveolar cells of the breast. The infant's action of nursing, or suckling, also stimulates the secretion of prolactin and of oxytocin, a pituitary hormone that causes the contraction of the muscle cells around the alveoli in the breast, resulting in the expulsion of milk. Milk released during the first few days of lactation is called colostrum; it is richer in proteins, minerals, and immunoglobulins and is lower in calories and fat than the mature milk that develops over the following few weeks. The level of fats, lactose, and B vitamins gradually increases in breast milk during the first month of lactation. Mature breast milk is rich in the mother's white blood cells and hormones and substances such as immunoglobulins, which protect the infant against bacteria and other infectious agents. The infant begins to outgrow the mother's milk supply around 4 to 6 months of age. Supplemental foods are generally introduced at this time to supply more calories and to acquaint the infant with the mechanisms of eating and drinking. As the child is weaned from nursing, lactation slowly declines and then stops. There is no typical age at which an infant must be weaned. The number of children who are breast-fed and the age at which they are weaned vary from country to country and among socioeconomic classes and regions within a country. Lactation may be interrupted by insufficient oxytocin secretion, by an inadequate suckling pattern, or by maternal or infant physical difficulties. In addition, emotional factors such as stress can interfere with lactation and may be overcome by relaxation methods or by treatment with oxytocin and the reassurance gained as nursing becomes successful. secretion and yielding of milk by females after giving birth. The milk is produced by the mammary glands, which are contained within the breasts. (See also mammary gland.) The breasts, unlike most of the other organs, continue to increase in size after childbirth. Although mammary growth begins during pregnancy under the influence of ovarian and placental hormones, and some milk is formed, copious milk secretion sets in only after delivery. Since lactation ensues after a premature birth, it would appear that milk production is held back during pregnancy. The mechanism by which this inhibitory effect is brought about, or by which lactation is initiated at delivery, has long been the subject of an argument that revolves around the opposing actions of estrogen, progesterone, and prolactin, as studied in laboratory animals, goats, and cattle. During pregnancy the combination of estrogen and progesterone circulating in the blood appears to inhibit milk secretion by blocking the release of prolactin from the pituitary gland and by making the mammary gland cells unresponsive to this pituitary hormone. The blockade is removed at the end of pregnancy by the expulsion of the placenta and the loss of its supply of hormones, as well as by the decline in hormone production by the ovaries, while sufficient estrogen remains in circulation to promote the secretion of prolactin by the pituitary gland and so favour lactation. It is also possible that a relative increase in the blood level of adrenal hormones favours the production of milk. For lactation to continue, necessary patterns of hormone secretion must be maintained; and disturbances of the equilibrium by the experimental removal of the pituitary gland, in animals, or by comparable diseased conditions in human beings, quickly arrest milk production. Several pituitary hormones seem to be involved in the formation of milk, so that it is customary to speak of a lactogenic (milk-producing) complex of hormones. To some degree, the role of the pituitary hormones adrenocorticotropin, thyrotropin, and growth hormone in supporting lactation in women is inferred from the results of studies done on animals and from clinical observations that are in agreement with the results of animal studies. Prolactin, growth hormone, and adrenal hormone seem of greatest value in restoring lactation after removal of the pituitary, although the precise response varies from species to species. The stimulus of nursing or suckling supports continued lactation in two ways: it promotes the secretion of prolactin (and possibly other pituitary hormones of value in milk formation), and it triggers the release of yet another hormone from the pituitary glandoxytocin, which causes contraction of special muscle cells around the alveoli in the breast and ensures the expulsion of milk. It is in this way that a baby's sucking at one breast may cause an increase in milk flow from both, so that milk may drip from the unsuckled nipple. About 30 seconds elapse between the beginning of active suckling and the initiation of milk flow. The nerve supply to the mammary glands is not of great significance in lactation, for milk production is normal after the experimental severing of nerves to the normal mammary glands in animals or in an udder transplanted to the neck of a goat. Milk ejection, or the draught, in women is readily conditioned and can be precipitated by the preparations for nursing. Conversely, embarrassment or fright can inhibit milk ejection by interfering with the release of oxytocin; alcohol, also, is known to block milk ejection in women, again by an action on the brain. Beyond its action on the mammary glands, oxytocin affects uterine muscle, so that suckling can cause contractions of the uterus and may sometimes result in cramp. Since oxytocin release occurs during sexual intercourse, milk ejection in lactating women has been observed on such occasions. Disturbance of oxytocin secretion, or of the milk-ejection reflex, stops lactation just as readily as a lack of the hormones necessary for milk production, for the milk in the breast is then not extractable by the infant. Many instances of nursing failure are due to a lack of milk ejection in stressful circumstances; fortunately, treatment with oxytocin, coupled with the reassurance gained from a successful nursing, is ordinarily successful in overcoming the difficulty. Suckling can initiate lactation in nonpregnant women. This has been seen most often in women of childbearing age but also has been observed in older persons. A baby who had lost his mother was suckled by his 60-year-old grandmother, who had borne her last child 18 years before. The grandmother produced milk after a few days and continued to nurse the baby until he was a year old and could walk. Rarely, lactation has been reported to set in after operations on the chest; in such instances it is attributed to injury or irritation of the nerves in this region. Such observations argue against the possibility that lactation continues simply as a consequence of emptying the breasts. Bernard Thomas Donovan The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica Additional reading Ruth A. Lawrence, Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession, 4th ed. (1994). The Editors of the Encyclopdia Britannica