LUXEMBOURG

officially Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, French Grand-Duch de Luxembourg, German Grossherzogtum Luxemburg one of the smallest nations in Europe, situated in the northwestern sector of the continent. Luxembourg covers an area of 998 square miles (2,586 square km). Its maximum length (north to south) is 51 miles (82 km) and maximum width (east to west) 35 miles (56 km). The capital is the city of Luxembourg. The country is bordered by Belgium (north and west), France (south), and Germany (east). Its eastern boundary with Germany is formed by the Our, Sre, and Moselle rivers. The population in 1991 was estimated at 380,000. officially Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, French Grand-Duch de Luxembourg, German Grossherzogtum Luxemburg country in northwestern Europe. It is one of the world's smallest nations, with an area of only 998 square miles (2,586 square kilometres). It is bordered by Belgium on the west and north, France on the south, and Germany on the northeast and east. Luxembourg has come under the control of many states and ruling houses in its long history, but it has been a separate, if not always autonomous, political unit since the 10th century. The ancient Saxon name of its capital city, Lucilinburhuc (Little Fortress), symbolized its strategic position as the Gibraltar of the north, astride a major military route linking Germanic and Frankish territories. Luxembourg is a point of contact between the Germanic- and Romance-language communities of Europe, and the grand duchy itself has three official languages: German, French, and Luxembourgian. The peoples of Luxembourg and their languages reflect the grand duchy's common interests and close historical relations with its neighbours. In the 20th century, Luxembourg became a founding member of several international economic organizations. Perhaps most importantly, the grand duchy was an original member of the Benelux Economic Union (1944), which linked its economic life with that of The Netherlands and of Belgium and would subsequently form the core of the European Community (EC). also called Letzeburg, city and capital of Luxembourg, in the south-central part of the country. Luxembourg city is situated on a sandstone plateau into which the Alzette River and its tributary, the Petrusse, have cut deep, winding ravines. Within a loop of the Alzette, a rocky promontory called the Bock (Bouc) forms a natural defensive position where the Romans and later the Franks built a fort, around which the medieval town developed. The purchase of this castle in AD 963 by Siegfried, Count of Ardennes, marked the beginning of Luxembourg as an independent entity. The castle's old name, Lucilinburhuc (Little Fortress), is the origin of the name Luxembourg. The old town consists of Luxembourg Castle's surviving fortifications, the Grand Ducal Palace, Notre Dame Cathedral, and other historic buildings. The city eventually spread westward, and the suburbs of Grund, Clausen, and Pfaffenthal developed in lower-lying sections across the Alzette from the old town. These sections are linked by several bridges. Over a 400-year period, Luxembourg Castle (Chteau de Luxembourg) was repeatedly attacked and rebuilt by the Spaniards, Austrians, French, and Dutch, successively, to become the strongest fortress in Europe after Gibraltar. One such reinforcement was undertaken by the French military engineer Sbastien Le Prestre de Vauban, who redesigned the city's defensive fortifications after having orchestrated its siege in 1684 in the service of Louis XIV. From after the Congress of Vienna (1815) to 1866, the fortress was garrisoned by the Prussians as a bulwark of the German Confederation. With the Treaty of London, in 1867, Luxembourg was declared neutral, and the fortress, containing 15 miles (24 km) of casements, three battlements with 24 forts, and an extensive (10-acre [4-hectare]) area of military barracks, was largely dismantled, an operation that took 16 years. Today visitors can tour the remaining 7 miles (11 km) of casements or view the modern city below from the Chemin de la Corniche, a promontory built atop the old town wall. The Grand Ducal Palace (Palais Grand-Ducal) is home to the royal family, heirs of William I (17721843), king of The Netherlands and grand duke of Luxembourg (181540). The palace dates from 1572, and later additions were made in 1895. After renovations were completed in the 1990s, portions of the palace were opened to the public. Notre Dame Cathedral (Cathdrale Notre-Dame), a Gothic-style church built by Jesuits in 1613, contains the tomb of John the Blind, king of Bohemia and count of Luxembourg from 1310 to 1346. Several members of the royal family and noted bishops are buried in the crypt. The heart of the old town is the Fish Market (March-aux-Poissons), around which stand several 17th- and 18th-century buildings, including the mansion housing the Luxembourg National Museum (National Museum of History and Art). Um Bock, a 13th-century building and the city's oldest, is also located at the Fish Market. Among the city's other cultural institutions are the Jean-Pierre Pescatore Museum (1966) of fine arts and the History Museum of the City of Luxembourg (1996). At the town of Hamm 4 miles (6 km) to the east is a World War II military cemetery with the graves of more than 5,000 U.S. soldiers, including those of Brigadier General Edward Betts and General George S. Patton, Jr. Luxembourg has long been a major road and railway hub. In the 20th century the city became a thriving financial centre owing to banking laws that keep investors' identities confidential and allow the accounts of foreign nationals to earn interest tax-free. Luxembourg is the seat of the European Investment Bank, the European Court of Justice, and several other administrative offices of the European Union. In 1994 the old town was added to UNESCO's World Heritage List. Pop. (1991) 75,377; (1997 est.) 78,300. province, southeastern Belgium. It has an area of 1,715 square miles (4,441 square km) and is drained by three tributaries of the Meuse River: the Ourthe, Semois, and Lesse rivers. The province is bounded by the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (east), France (south), and the provinces of Namur (west) and Lige (north). It is divided into five administrative arrondissements (Arlon, Bastogne, Marche-en-Famenne, Neufchteau, and Virton). Formerly part of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg, it became a Belgian province in 1831. Its northeastern part around Bastogne suffered severe damage during World War II, especially in the Battle of the Bulge (194445). Three-quarters of the province lies within the highlands of the Ardennes (q.v.), and the rest, about 400 square miles (1,000 square km) in the south, comprises Belgian Lorraine, a part of the Paris Basin. The Ardennes Plateau rises to 1,968 feet (600 m) at the Baraque de Fraiture in the northeast and to 1,837 feet in the St. Hubert Forest. More than one-third of the plateau's area is wooded with oak, birch, and beech in the valleys and spruce and Scots pine on the heights. The plateau's thin acid soils and uncertain climate limit its agricultural use largely to pasturage for pigs and cattle, along with some dairying and cultivating of oats, rye, clover, and potatoes. Tobacco is grown extensively, with heavy fertilization, in the alluvial flats of the Semois River valley. An extensive tourist industry has developed in the Ardennes, where some timber export and limited quarrying of quartzite and slate are also carried out. Belgian Lorraine is composed of sandstone and limestone hills separated by lower areas of clays, marls, and shales. It is still nearly half wooded, with less than one-third of the area in pasture or cropland (wheat, potatoes, and fodder). There are also cattle, pig, dairy, and fruit farms. The industry of the province is concentrated in the southeast around the previously active iron mines of Belgian Lorraine, which supplied the blast furnaces at Musson and Halanzy and the steelworks at Athus. Principal population centres are the market and resort towns of Houffalize, La-Roche-en-Ardenne, St. Hubert, Libramont, and Vielsalm in the Ardennes; Florenville, Bouillon, and Chiny in the Semois River valley; and Arlon (q.v.; the capital) and Virton in the southeast. There are two nature reserves in the ArdennesRouge Ponce (established 1969) and the Plateau des Tailles (1968). Historic landmarks include the ruined castle at Bouillon and the restored Cistercian Abbey of Orval near Florenville. Pop. (1990 est.) 230,827. Additional reading An introduction to the country is provided by P. Margue et al., Luxembourg (1984), in French, a well-illustrated work covering history, politics, ethnography, language and literature, natural history, and economy. Studies of the geography and economy of Luxembourg include J.M. Gehring, Le Luxembourg: un espace ouvert de l'Europe rhnane (1977); Paul Weber, Histoire de l'conomie luxembourgeoise (1950); and Raymond Kirsch, La Croissance de l'conomie luxembourgeoise (1971). Visual presentations of the land and of data on the country may be found in Guy Schmit and Bernd Wiese, Luxemburg in Karte und Luftbild (1980), maps and aerial photos with text in German and French; and Ministre de l'ducation Nationale, Atlas du Luxembourg (1971). Works focusing on Luxembourg's history include N. Van Werveke, Kulturgeschichte des Luxemburger Landes, 2 vol. in 1 (192326); Charles J.P.A. Herchen, History of the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg (1950; originally published in French, 5th rev. ed. by N. Margue and J. Meyers, 1947); E. Donckel, Die Kirche in Luxemburg von den Anfngen bis zur Gegenwart (1950); Paul Weber, Histoire du Grand-Duch de Luxembourg, 4th ed. (1961); Manuel d'histoire luxembourgeoise, 4 vol. (197377); James Newcomer, The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg: The Evolution of Nationhood, 963 AD to 1983 (1984); and Gilbert Trausch, Le Luxembourg: emergence d'un tat et d'une nation (1989). For further resources see Carlo Hury and Jules Christophory (comps.), Luxembourg (1981), a bibliography. Jean Marie Gehring Vronique Lambert Administration and social conditions Government The grand duchy is a constitutional monarchy with hereditary succession. Executive power authority lies with the grand duke, who appoints the prime minister. The powers of the grand duke are primarily formal, however. Actual executive power lies with the prime minister and his ministerial council, or Cabinet, who are responsible to the Chamber of Deputies. The members of this legislative assembly are elected by popular vote to five-year terms. Voting by all adult citizens, begun in 1919, is compulsory. Legislative elections have usually given rise to coalition governments formed alternatively by two of the three major parties: the Christian Social Party, the Socialist Workers' Party, and the Democratic Party. In addition, a Council of State named by the grand duke functions as an advisory body. It is consulted on all draft legislation, advises the grand duke on administrative affairs, and serves as a supreme court in case of administrative disputes. There are also three advisory bodies that are consulted before the passage of legislation affecting their particular area of the national life. The first of these consists of six confederations, three of which represent employers (commerce, guilds, and farmers) and three of which represent labour (workers, private employees, and civil servants). The second advisory group, the Social and Economic Council, has become a major committee for the examination of all projects. The third, the Immigration Council, advises the government on problems involving housing and the political rights of immigrants. Justice is in the hands of magistrates appointed for life by the grand duke, the final appeal lying with the Superior Court of Justice. In the criminal court of assizes, six magistrates sit as jury as well as judge. Luxembourg is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and has a small volunteer army. There is also a small paramilitary gendarmerie. Luxembourg is divided administratively into three districts, each of which is headed by a commissioner appointed by the central government. Each district is in turn divided into cantons and subdivided into communes, or municipalities. Public works, health, and education are among the responsibilities of the communes, each of which is governed by an elected council and a mayor. These bodies also maintain liaison with the central government and act as its local agents. Health and welfare After World War I a broad system of social security and health services was introduced in Luxembourg to ensure maximum welfare protection to each citizen. Sickness benefits, in which patients pay only a small part of medical costs, as well as birth, family, and unemployment payments, are included in the plans. Housing conditions are generally comparable to those found in other western European countries. There has been some difficulty, however, in assimilating the many thousands of foreign workers and their families. Cultural life The major cultural institution of Luxembourg is the Grand Ducal Institute, which has sections devoted to history, science, medicine, languages and folklore, arts and literature, and moral and political sciences. It functions as an active promoter of the arts, humanities, and general culture rather than as a conservator. The National Museum of History and Art has collections on the fine and industrial arts and on the history of Luxembourg. There is considerable public use of the National Library, the National Archives, and the Music Conservatory of the City of Luxembourg. The grand duchy also maintains cultural agreements with several European and other nations that provide it with the finest in the musical and theatrical arts. The Grand Orchestra of Radiotelevision Luxembourg is considered outstanding. There is an extensive market in Luxembourg city for works of painting and sculpture, both traditional and modern. The grand duchy's architectural heritage extends through practically the entire span of Europe's recorded history, from ancient Gallo-Roman villas to medieval castles, Gothic and Baroque churches, and contemporary buildings. A small publishing industry exists, printing literary works in French, German, and Luxembourgian. The grand duchy's newspapers express diverse political points of viewconservative, liberal, socialist, and communist. Luxembourg's influence is felt far beyond its borders through the medium of Radiotelevision Luxembourg (RTL), a privately owned broadcasting company that transmits radio programs in five languages and television programs in two (French and German). RTL has a total European audience numbering as many as eight million persons. The government operates all postal and telegraph services in Luxembourg and has some control in the corporation that runs RTL. Victor J.P. Biel Jean-Pierre Erpelding Jean Marie Gehring