MANCHU

also called Man, people who lived for many centuries in Manchuria and adjacent areas and who in the 17th century conquered China and ruled that country for more than 250 years. The term Manchu dates from the 16th century, but it is certain that the Manchu are descended from a group of peoples collectively called the Tungus (the Even and Evenk are also descended from that group). The Manchu, under other names, had lived in northeastern Manchuria in prehistoric times. In early Chinese records they were known as the Tung-ihu, or Eastern Barbarians; in the 3rd century BC they were given the name Su-shen, or I-lou; in the 10th century AD Chinese historians spoke of them as Nu-chi, or Ju-chi, an attempt to transliterate the native word Juchen. These Juchen established a kingdom of some extent and importance in Manchuria, and by AD 1115 their dynasty (called Chin in Chinese records) had secured control over northeastern China. The kingdom was annihilated by the Mongols in 1234, and the surviving Juchen were driven back into northeastern Manchuria. Three centuries later the descendants of these Juchen again came into prominence, but before long they dropped the name Juchen for Manchu. They regained control of Manchuria, moved south, and conquered Peking (1644); and by 1680 the Manchu had established complete control over all sections of China under the name of the Ch'ing dynasty. The Manchu managed to maintain a brilliant and powerful government until about 1800, after which they rapidly lost energy and ability. It was not, however, until 1911/12 that the Ch'ing dynasty was overthrown. Modern research shows that the Juchen-Manchu speak a language belonging to the sparse but geographically widespread Manchu-Tungus subfamily of the Altaic language family. At an early date, probably about the 1st century AD, various Manchu-Tungus-speaking tribes moved from their homeland in or near northeastern Manchuria to the north and west and eventually occupied most of Siberia between the Yenisey River and the Pacific Ocean. The Manchu became established in the south, while the Even, Evenk, and other peoples predominated in the north and west. From the Chinese records it is evident that the I-lou, the Tungus ancestors of the Manchu, were essentially hunters, fishers, and food gatherers, though in later times they and their descendants, the Juchen and Manchu, developed a primitive form of agriculture and animal husbandry. The Juchen-Manchu were accustomed to braid their hair into a queue, or pigtail. When the Manchu conquered China they forced the Chinese to adopt this custom as a sign of loyalty to the new dynasty. Apart from this, the Manchu made no attempt to impose their manners and customs upon the Chinese. After the conquest of China, the greater part of the Manchu migrated there and kept their ancestral estates only as hunting lodges. Eventually these estates were broken up and sold to or occupied by Chinese (Han) immigrant farmers. By 1900 even in Manchuria the new Chinese settlers greatly outnumbered the Manchu. The Manchu emperorsdespite their splendid patronage of Chinese art, scholarship, and culture over the centuriesmade strenuous efforts to prevent the Manchu from being absorbed by the Chinese. The Manchu were urged to retain their own language and to give their children a Manchu education. Attempts were made to prevent the intermarriage of Manchu and Chinese, so as to keep the Manchu strain ethnically pure. Social intercourse between the two peoples was frowned upon. All these efforts proved fruitless. During the 19th century, as the dynasty decayed, efforts to preserve cultural and ethnic segregation gradually broke down. The Manchu began to adopt the Chinese customs and language and to intermarry with the Chinese. Few, if any, spoke the Manchu language by the end of the 20th century. China's government, however, continues to identify the Manchu as a separate ethnic group (numbering about 10.5 million in the late 20th century), living in Liaoning, Kirin, Heilungkiang, and Hupeh provinces, in Peking, and in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region.