MESOPOTAMIAN MYTHOLOGY

the myths, epics, hymns, lamentations, penitential psalms, incantations, wisdom literature, and handbooks dealing with rituals and omens of ancient Mesopotamia. The literature that has survived from Mesopotamia was written primarily on stone or clay tablets. The production and preservation of written documents were the responsibility of scribes who were associated with the temples and the palace. A sharp distinction cannot be made between religious and secular writings. The function of the temple as a food redistribution centre meant that even seemingly secular shipping receipts had a religious aspect. In a similar manner, laws were perceived as given by the gods. Accounts of the victories of the kings often were associated with the favour of the gods and written in praise of the gods. The gods were also involved in the establishment and enforcement of treaties between political powers of the day. A large group of texts related to the interpretation of omens has survived. Because it was felt that the will of the gods could be known through the signs that the gods revealed, care was taken to collect ominous signs and the events which they preached. If the signs were carefully observed, negative future events could be prevented by the performance of appropriate apotropaic rituals. Among the more prominent of the omen texts are the shumma izbu texts (If a fetus . . . ) which observe the birth of malformed young of both animals and humans. Later a similar series of texts observed the physical characteristics of any person. Dream omens are represented but are relatively rare. There are also omen observations to guide the physician in the diagnosis and treatment of patients. The largest collection of omens, containing more than 100 tablets, is entitled If a City is Situated on a Hill . . . Several types of prayers have also been preserved. Prayers begin with praise of the deity, then move to the request or complaint of the worshipper, and end with anticipatory praise of the deity for the deliverance which is expected. Other prayers were conjurations to rid the worshipper of various maladies through the intervention of the gods. Some prayers were laments while others praised a given deity. A few explicitly ritual texts have survived. Significant in the Babylonian new year festival was the reading of the Creation Epic, entitled Enuma Elish. These tablets begin with a genealogy of the gods followed by an account of the creation of heaven and earth from the body of Tiamat who had been slain by Marduk. The rise of Marduk to rulership over the gods is the underlying theme of this epic. As part of his organization of the universe, mankind was created from the blood of Kingu, the cohort of Tiamat, and Babylon was established as Marduk's city. Another famous text is the Gilgamesh Epic. The 12 tablets of this epic begin and end at the walls of Uruk, the city which Gilgamesh founded. The story itself tells of the exploits of Gilgamesh and his friend Enkidu. Prominent among these adventures is the defeat of the monster Humbaba, guardian of the Cedar Mountain. With the death of Enkidu, Gilgamesh turns his efforts toward a quest for immortality which eventually brings him into contact with such figures as Utnapishtim, who, because he had survived the Flood, was granted immortality. Three times Gilgamesh nearly attains his goal only to have it slip away. Several other stories from Mesopotamia deal with the theme of immortality. In the Myth of Adapa, Adapa was summoned to the gods because he had broken the wings of the South Wind. Due to the warning of his divine father, Ea, he refused to eat or drink the food of the gods offered to him which would have granted him immortality. A different type of immortality was related in the story of Etana, the king of Kish, who was without children. In order to reach the Plant of Birth, he freed an eagle from captivity and rode its back to heaven. Other Mesopotamian myths include the story of Atrahasis, a wise man who was saved from the Flood after being warned by one of the gods to build a ship to save himself. The myth of Ishtar's Descent and return from the underworld was evidently connected to the cycle of fertility. The story of Nergal and Ereshkigal told how Nergal became the ruler of the underworld. The Epic of Irra explained how Marduk, the god of Babylon, left the city in charge of other deities, which led to the destruction of the city. The epic ends with the return of Marduk and the renewed prosperity of the city. The work Let Me Praise the Lord of Wisdom has been compared to the Book of Job and describes the sufferings of a prince abandoned by his god. Praise to the god (Marduk) becomes the focus when the situation is later reversed.