MONGOLIA

Khalkha Mongolian Mongol Uls, also called Outer Mongolia country located in north-central Asia. It occupies an area of 604,000 square miles (1,565,000 square kilometres). Its shape is that of an elongated oval, measuring 1,486 miles (2,392 kilometres) from west to east and, at its maximum, 782 miles from north to south. Mongolia is bounded on the north by Russia and on the south by China. Located deep within the interior of eastern Asia far from any ocean, Mongolia has a marked continental climate, with long, cold winters and short, cool to hot summers. Its remarkable variety of scenery consists largely of upland steppes, semideserts, and deserts, although in the west and north forested, high mountain ranges alternate with dry, lake-dotted basins. Mongolia is highland country, with an average altitude of 5,200 feet (1,585 metres) above sea level. The highest peaks are in the Mongol Altai Mountains, of which Nayramadln Peak (also called Hyten Peak; 14,350 feet [4,374 metres]), at the western tip of the country, is Mongolia's highest point. Nearly four-fifths of Mongolia's area consists of pasturelands, which support immense herds of grazing livestock; the remaining area is about equally divided between forests and barren deserts, with only a tiny fraction of the land in crops. With a total population of slightly more than two million, Mongolia has one of the lowest population densities of any country in the world. However, since the 1950s the country has had one of Asia's highest rates of natural increase. The Mongols have a long prehistory and a most remarkable history. Their ancestors were the Huns, a people who lived in Central Asia from the 3rd to the 1st century BC. A single Mongolian feudal state eventually was formed in the early 13th century AD from nomadic tribal groupings. Its leader, Genghis Khan, and his successors in the 13th century controlled a vast empire that included much of China, Russia, and Central Asia. Because of its location between China and Russia, Mongolia subsequently was dominated first by one and then the other, but mainly by the Chinese (16911921). Damdiny Shbaatar, the national hero of modern Mongolia, was profoundly influenced by the October Revolution (1917) in Russia and later, with Soviet assistance, drove out both the White Russians and the Chinese. Shbaatar's forces achieved power on July 11, 1921, traditionally the founding date of the present state. From its independence from China in 1921, Mongolia was closely tied to the Soviet Union until the end of the 1980s. It received technical, economic, and military assistance from the Soviet Union and generally followed Soviet guidance in political and cultural matters, both domestic and international. Symbolic of the profound changes in culture and society was the replacement in the 1940s of the traditional Mongolian alphabet with a new one based on the Cyrillic letters of the Russian alphabet. In the period 199092, however, Mongolia moved away from a monopoly of political power by the communist party to free multiparty elections, a coalition government, a new constitution, greater cultural and religious freedom with more emphasis on national Mongol traditions, and a neutral position in international relations, as well as toward some elements of a market economy. In the 1990s the traditional script was once again taught in schools, and store signs appeared in both Cyrillic and traditional forms. Chauncy D. Harris Mongolian Mongol Uls, also called Outer Mongolia landlocked country that is located between Russia to the north and China to the south, in north-central Asia. It is Asia's seventh largest country in area but one of its smallest in population. Lying between latitudes 42 and 52 N and longitudes 87 and 120 E, its shape is an elongated oval, measuring 1,486 miles (2,392 km) from west to east and, at its maximum, 782 miles (1,259 km) from north to south. The capital is Ulaanbaatar. Area 604,800 square miles (1,566,500 square km). Pop. (1993 est.) 2,256,000. Additional reading Geography Comprehensive discussions of the country may be found in Robert L. Worden and Andrea Matles Savada (eds.), Mongolia: A Country Study, 2nd ed. (1991), with an extensive bibliography; and Information Mongolia (1990), compiled by the Mongolian Academy of Sciences. Hellmuth Barthel, Land zwischen Taiga und Wste: 50 Jahre freie Mongolei (1971), is a brief overview. The best modern atlas depicting the physical and human features of Mongolia with detailed large-scale maps is Mongol'skaiaa Narodnaia Respublika, Natsional'nyi Atlas (1990). Problems of converting a communist command economy to a government-directed market economy are discussed in Elizabeth Milne et al., The Mongolian People's Republic: Toward a Market Economy (1991), a brief study for the International Monetary Fund. Sechin Jagchid and Paul Hyer, Mongolia's Culture and Society (1979), discusses the nomadic traditions, religion, arts, economy, and sociopolitical structure of the Mongols. Mongolian National Commission for Unesco, Cultural Policy in the Mongolian People's Republic: A Study (1982), is a brief discussion of contemporary practices. Walther Heissig, The Religions of Mongolia (1980; originally published in German, 1970), is a scholarly work covering shamanism to Tibetan Buddhism. Alan J.K. Sanders, Mongolia: Politics, Economics, and Society (1987), is an interdisciplinary study. Useful summaries of evolving government, economy, society, and culture appear annually in the January issue of Asian Survey. Chauncy D. Harris History The Mongol conquests, empire, and succession states are reviewed in The Secret History of the Mongols, ed. and trans. from Mongolian by Francis Woodman Cleaves (1982); David Morgan, The Mongols (1986); Thomas T. Allsen, Mongol Imperialism: The Policies of the Grand Qan Mngke in China, Russia, and the Islamic Lands, 12511259 (1987); Morris Rossabi, China and Inner Asia: From 1368 to the Present Day (1975); and M. Sanjdorj, Manchu Chinese Colonial Rule in Northern Mongolia, trans. from Mongolian (1980). Comprehensive coverage of developments up to the 1960s is provided in B. Shirendev et al. (eds.), History of the Mongolian People's Republic (1976; originally published in Mongolian, 1966); Robert A. Rupen, Mongols of the Twentieth Century, 2 vol. (1964); and C.R. Bawden, The Modern History of Mongolia (1968). Later events are analyzed by Robert A. Rupen, How Mongolia Is Really Ruled: A Political History of the Mongolian People's Republic, 19001978 (1979). Events which led up to the Mongolian rejection of socialism, and the move to democratization and a market economy, closely parallel the same developments in the former Soviet Union. Descriptions of these movements, as well as the environmental and social costs of the Soviet period, are presented in the brief work by Marko Milivojevic, The Mongolian Revolution of 1990 (1990). Studies of the present ecological and environmental problems, with useful analyses of the evolution of Mongolia after World War II, are Mongolia: Restructuring for a Market Economy (1993), published by the United Nations International Development Organization; and Robert L. Worden and Andrea Matles Savada (eds.), Mongolia: A Country Study, 2nd ed. (1991). Larry William Moses, The Political Role of Mongol Buddhism (1977), analyzes the situation in the 20th century. A useful summary of the later history of Mongolia may be found in Judith Nordby (compiler), Mongolia (1993), a bibliography. Owen Lattimore Larry William Moses Administration and social conditions Government From the founding of an independent Mongolia on July 11, 1921, the country followed Soviet leadership for nearly seven decades; it was the first Soviet satellite and remained so the longest. The Soviet army became Mongolia's main defense force, and party and governmental structures closely followed the Soviet models of a one-party political system. The economy was transformed gradually into a communist command economy with governmental ownership of the means of production and with an emphasis on mining and industry. During the 1980s the party leadership underwent change. An era of openness permitted criticism of current and past party leadership and of economic, political, and social stagnation and resulted in the elimination of the monopoly of power by the communist party (Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party ) in March 1990, multiparty elections in July 1990, and the subsequent formation of a coalition government. A new constitution became effective on Feb. 12, 1992, with power divided among independent legislative, executive, and judicial organs, with human rights guaranteed by law, with separation and mutual noninterference of state and religion, and with the authorization of private ownership of land, except for pastures used by nomadic herders. The lands (except those given to the citizens of Mongolia for private possession), water, forests, fauna, and underground resources are the property of the state, which also regulates the economy. The new constitution provided for a strong, directly elected president, who nominates the prime minister and who has the power to veto legislation. That he must be at least 45 years old places the position out of the reach of young reformers. The constitution also created a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural, with 76 members elected for four-year terms. Parliament by a two-thirds vote can overturn a presidential veto. The MPRP continues to play a leading role in the government. The country is divided administratively into 18 aymags (provinces), with further local subdivisions into towns and somons (districts). The cities of Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and Erdenet have independent administrative status. Justice Justice is administered through an independent system of courts: Supreme Court, province courts (including a capital city court), and district courts. Special courts such as criminal, civil, and administrative may be formed. Matters relating to the interpretation of the constitution are decided by an independent Constitutional Court. Amendments to the constitution require a three-fourths vote of members of the Great Hural. Cultural life Contemporary cultural life in Mongolia is a unique amalgam of traditional elementsthe heritage of centuriesand a growing modern element. Traditional elements Mongolian literature evolved a wealth of traditional genres: heroic epics, legends, tales, yurol (the poetry of good wishes), and magtaal (the poetry of praise), as well as a host of proverbial sayings. These genres are infused by what Mongols regard as a national characteristica good-humoured love of life, with particular fondness for witty sayings and jokes, particularly evident in the image of Dalan Khuldalchi, the hero of humorous folktales, and in the stories about the badarchins, clever but wily wandering monks. The baatarthe popular hero of folk legendis also a symbolic figure. Khurchinsfolk poets and singerscarried down the oral epics and ballads; and their mime and gesture gave rise to the popular trenchant satirical vaudevilles, Sumya Noyon and Dunkher Da-Lam. The religious mysteries, tsam and maidari, were formerly staged as mass spectacles. Other folk arts include the making of shirdeg, richly ornamented felt carpets noted as adorning the entrances to yurts by 13th-century European travelers. The Mongolian form of chess, shatar, with a stern khan for king, a dogthe cattle breeder's traditional honoured friendas queen, and a camel as a bishop, has very deep roots and has produced some finely carved chess sets. The ancient faience decoration of glazed earthenware, with exquisite motifs, has been revived. A complicated and dignified ritual still accompanies the traditional offering and acceptance of hospitality in a country where traveling is all-important, and the seating arrangements in the yurt are likewise carefully arranged. When conversing, Mongolians traditionally place the right palm on that of the left hand, a symbol of mutual esteem, and the same gesture, together with a light bow, expresses gratitude, greeting, or farewell. The most famous celebration of traditional ways, however, is the annual Naadam festival of the Three Games of Men, beginning each year on July 11, National Day, and held in all provinces and counties. The festival has recorded roots going back 2,300 years or more. The first sport is wrestling, prominent in ancient times at religious festivals, and the ritual entry into the arena of several hundred participants, clad in the bright colours of a special tight-fitting costume known as the Dzodog Shudag and simulating the flight of the mythical Garudi bird, is a spectacular sight. The contests themselves also are conducted with great ceremony. Titles awarded at the national Naadam festivals are those of Titan, Lion, Elephant, and Falcon. A three-time winner becomes a Darkhan Avraga (Invincible Titan). The second sport is archery; and bowmen vie for the title of Merghen, or Supermarksman, in individual and group contests, shooting at a leather-covered target with weapons of ancient design. Exceptional winners are characterized as Miraculous Archer, Most Scrupulous Archer, and similar names. The third sport, horse racing, is in many ways the most spectacular because all the competitors are children, ranging in age from 7 to 12. They are highly skilled and wear fine ornamental dresses as they race for about 20 miles across country. National horse-riding competitions for all ages are held during January and February, the Mongolian New Year, and are claimed to date back to the Bronze Age. Marco Polo, visiting in the 13th century, described a gathering of not fewer than 10,000 white horses held at the behest of the Great Khan.